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What are the steps of the Calvin cycle?
Uses ATP and NADPH to convert $CO_2$ into sugars in the stroma of the chloroplast.
What are the steps of glycolysis?
Breaks down glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH (occurs in the cytosol).
What are the steps of the Krebs cycle?
Further oxidizes pyruvate, producing $CO_2$, ATP, NADH, and $FADH_2$ (occurs in the mitochondria).
What is the role of the electron transport chain (ETC)?
Transfers electrons, creating a proton gradient across the mitochondrial/chloroplast membrane.
What are the steps of photosynthesis?
1. Light-dependent reactions: Capture light energy and convert it into ATP and NADPH. 2. Calvin cycle: Uses ATP and NADPH to convert $CO_2$ into sugars.
What is the role of ATP synthase?
Uses the proton gradient to make ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
What happens when an enzyme is denatured?
The enzyme loses its shape and function.
What happens when substrate concentration is too low?
The reaction rate slows down.
What happens when substrate concentration is too high?
Enzyme active sites become saturated, reaction rate plateaus.
What happens when energy input drops below energy loss in a system?
The system dies.
What is the effect of a proton gradient across a membrane?
It drives ATP synthesis by ATP synthase.
What happens when a competitive inhibitor binds to an enzyme?
It blocks the substrate from binding to the active site.
What happens when a noncompetitive inhibitor binds to an enzyme?
It changes the enzyme's shape, reducing its activity.
What is the definition of cellular respiration?
Aerobic process that breaks down glucose to produce ATP using oxygen. Occurs in the mitochondria of eukaryotes.
What is the definition of ATP (adenosine triphosphate)?
The cell's main energy currency.
What is the definition of enzymes?
Protein catalysts that speed up reactions.
What is the definition of active site?
The specific spot on an enzyme where the substrate (reactant) binds.
What is the definition of denaturation?
When an enzyme loses its shape and function due to factors like temperature or pH.
What is the definition of photosynthesis?
The process of converting light energy into chemical energy (sugars).
What is the definition of fermentation?
An anaerobic process that produces ATP without oxygen (e.g., lactic acid or ethanol).
What is the definition of oxidative phosphorylation?
The process of making ATP using the ETC and ATP synthase in cellular respiration.
What is the definition of photophosphorylation?
The process of making ATP using the ETC and ATP synthase in photosynthesis.
What is the definition of entropy?
The measure of disorder, which always increases in a closed system.