Chemistry of Life

Hydrogen bonding between parts of the polypeptide backbone

Van der Waals forces among hydrophobic side chains

Disulfide bridges between cysteine residues

Ionic bonding between charged R-groups side chains

Their hydrophobic exterior preventing water interaction.

Their ability to increase temperature within their local environment.

The presence of metallic cofactors in all enzymatic reactions.

The three-dimensional shape of their active sites.

It has no effect on enzyme activity or function.

It can alter the enzyme's shape and reduce its activity.

It leads to an increase in non-specific substrate binding.

It increases enzyme-substrate complex formation.

Pathways that directly convert each intermediate product rapidly into another without change suggest high efficiency through speed.

A pathway which consumption fewer enzymes throughout steps would indicate higher efficieny due its lower protein synthesis demand.

A pathway that yields more reduced electron carriers like NADH or FADH₂ per glucose molecule would be considered more efficient at storing energy.

Pathways utilizing only small numbers simple intermediates imply greater efficieiny, as complex ones require additonal biochemical investments.

Forming cellular structures

Providing energy

Speeding up chemical reactions

Storing genetic information

Carbon center

Amine group

R-group

Carboxyl

By causing an immediate frameshift mutation leading to altered protein function from Gene X's coding sequence directly affecting survival chances.

By altering regulatory elements modulating Gene X's expression impacting phenotypes subject to natural selection.

By replacing essential amino acids within Gene X leading directly to loss-of-function mutations influencing organismal adaptability within its environment abruptly post-mutation emergence.

By triggering premature stop codons in Gene X resulting in nonfunctional proteins reducing reproductive success rate dramatically instantly after mutation occurrence.

Decreased energy transfer efficiency at higher trophic levels.

An increase in the population size of the primary producer.

No significant change due to genetic drift overshadowing selection.

A decrease in biodiversity within that ecosystem.

They carry opposite charges that attract each other across the DNA double helix structure.

They share similar molecular weights allowing them to balance each other out on the DNA strand.

They form two hydrogen bonds with each other, fitting complementary shapes.

They are both purines and thus are structurally compatible for pairing within the helix framework.

Polarity

Hydrophilicity

Degradability

Hydrophobicity