Acids and Bases

Beaker

Erlenmeyer flask

Burette

Test tube

Dipole-dipole interactions

London dispersion forces

Hydrogen bonding

Ion-dipole interactions

Highly charged ions might associate with indicators disrupting their color-change properties at endpoints.

Such inclusion primarily alters conductometric detection precision rather than visual endpoint determinants.

These ions create secondary equilibria which obscure primary reaction completeness signals at endpoints.

The presence can lead to lattice energy effects that complicate solubility calculations and disrupt endpoint clarity.

Ratios solely define volumetric requirements for neutralization; they don't significantly impact buffer capacity or range.

Varying concentration ratios has minimal impact since buffering action relies mainly on absolute concentrations, not their relationship.

Changing ratios predominantly influences initial pH rather than buffer’s resistance to pH changes from added strong acids or bases.

Altering ratios affects buffer range and capacity due to shifts in equilibrium according to Le Châtelier's principle.

It is less than 7

It is equal to 7

It is greater than 7

It is impossible to predict

Very weak tendencies forming covalent bonds rather than ionically ones

Great stability factors regarding molecular structures

High levels dissociation constant values within aqueous mediums themselves

Extremely low solubility rates found most common under normal circumstances

At the equivalence point, there is twice as much analyte as there is titrant

At the equivalence point, there is twice as much titrant as there is analyte

At the equivalence point, there are equimolar quantities of titrant and analyte

At the equivalence point, there is zero titrant

Buffer solution

Distilled water

Titrand (either acid or base)

Indicator solution

Volumetric pipette

Graduated cylinder

Beaker

Burette

At initial addition when first drops of titrant are added to analyte.

At equivalence point when equal moles of acid and base have reacted.

At halfway to equivalence point where half moles of acid have been neutralized.

After equivalence point once all reactant has been consumed and excess begins to accumulate.