Glossary
1910 Revolution (Mexico)
A major armed conflict that transformed Mexican politics and society, leading to the overthrow of a long-standing dictatorship and paving the way for a new constitution and eventual democratic reforms.
Example:
The 1910 Revolution in Mexico was a pivotal moment that fundamentally reshaped the country's political landscape, ending decades of authoritarian rule.
1979 Revolution (Iran)
A pivotal event that overthrew the Pahlavi monarchy in Iran and established the Islamic Republic, transforming the country into a theocracy based on Shiite Islamic principles. [3, 30, 32, 42]
Example:
The 1979 Revolution dramatically shifted Iran's source of power from a secular monarchy to a religious leadership. [3, 30]
Absolute monarchy
A form of government where the monarch (king or queen) holds supreme, unchecked power, not limited by a constitution or laws. Their rule is typically hereditary. [15]
Example:
Historically, the UK was an absolute monarchy before centuries of reforms gradually shifted power to Parliament. [2]
Authoritarian policies
Government actions and laws that restrict individual freedoms, suppress dissent, and centralize power, characteristic of authoritarian regimes. [6]
Example:
China's internet censorship and strict control over media are examples of its authoritarian policies aimed at maintaining social stability. [6]
Authoritarian regimes
A system of government where power is concentrated in a single leader or a small group, exercising authority without meaningful checks or balances and often limiting civil liberties. [4, 5, 14, 34]
Example:
China and Iran are examples of authoritarian regimes where the ruling party or religious leaders maintain tight control over the state and society. [14, 47]
Authoritarian regimes (sudden change/revolution/coups)
Political systems characterized by concentrated power and limited freedoms, which are often prone to abrupt and sometimes violent shifts in power, such as revolutions (popular uprisings) or coups (military takeovers). [1, 7, 12, 22, 25, 31, 34]
Example:
Iran's authoritarian regime experienced a sudden change through the 1979 revolution, while Nigeria has seen multiple coups by its military. [3, 7, 12]
Authority
Authority is power that is perceived as legitimate and accepted by the social structure, meaning people agree to follow it according to specific procedures. It implies a recognized right to rule or command. [11, 15, 17, 18, 23, 27]
Example:
A police officer exercises authority when directing traffic, as their position is legally recognized and accepted by the public. [11]
Autocracy
A system of government in which one person has absolute power, often without constitutional limitations or popular accountability. [22]
Example:
Russia's history includes periods of autocracy under the tsars, where the monarch held supreme and unchallenged authority.
British colonialism
The historical period during which the United Kingdom established and maintained control over various territories and peoples around the world, often imposing its political and economic systems.
Example:
Nigeria's political development was profoundly shaped by its history under British colonialism, which introduced Western legal and administrative structures.
Centralized political power
A system where governing authority is concentrated in a single central government or a small group of leaders, with limited autonomy for regional or local entities. [6, 47]
Example:
In China, the Chinese Communist Party maintains highly centralized political power, controlling all major state institutions. [6, 47]
Clientelism
An informal system of policymaking where powerful patrons offer resources or favors (like jobs or protection) to less powerful clients in exchange for political support, often leading to corruption. [16, 25, 33, 38, 39]
Example:
Mexico's PRI party historically used clientelism to secure votes and maintain its long-standing dominance by distributing benefits in exchange for loyalty. [33]
Collapse of the Soviet Union
The dissolution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1991, which led to the independence of its constituent republics and a fundamental shift in Russia's political and economic system.
Example:
The collapse of the Soviet Union marked the end of communist rule in Russia and ushered in a period of political and economic transition.
Communist dictatorship
A totalitarian form of government where a single communist party holds absolute power, suppressing opposition and controlling all aspects of society and the economy. [6]
Example:
The Soviet Union under Stalin was a classic example of a communist dictatorship, characterized by extreme centralization and repression.
Communist nation
A state governed by a single communist party, typically adhering to Marxist-Leninist ideology, with a centrally planned economy and limited political freedoms. [6, 47]
Example:
China is a prominent example of a communist nation, where the Chinese Communist Party maintains a monopoly on political power. [6]
Constitution (as source of power)
A fundamental set of principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed, serving as a primary source of legitimate authority. [1, 3, 24]
Example:
The US Constitution outlines the powers of the government and the rights of citizens, serving as the supreme law of the land. [1]
Coup d'état
The sudden, illegal, and often violent seizure of power from a government, typically carried out by military forces or other internal factions. [7, 12, 14, 22, 25]
Example:
Nigeria's political history is marked by several instances of a coup d'état, where the military overthrew civilian governments. [12]
Democratic regimes (evolution)
Political systems where power is vested in the people through free and fair elections, and which tend to change gradually through reforms and institutional adjustments. [9, 28, 37, 40]
Example:
The UK's political system is an example of a democratic regime that has undergone slow, incremental evolution over centuries. [9]
Deng Xiaoping's reforms
A series of economic and social reforms initiated in China after Mao's death (starting 1978), which introduced market-oriented policies while maintaining the Communist Party's political control. [6, 46, 47]
Example:
Deng Xiaoping's reforms led to rapid economic growth in China, transforming it into a global economic power while preserving the one-party system. [6, 47]
Dynastic rule
A system of governance where power is passed down within a single family or lineage, typically from one generation to the next.
Example:
Prior to the 20th century, China was characterized by dynastic rule, with emperors from various families holding power for centuries.
Emerging democracy
A country that is in the process of transitioning from an authoritarian or non-democratic system towards a more democratic form of governance, often characterized by free elections and developing rule of law. [28]
Example:
Mexico's journey from a one-party dominant system to a multi-party electoral system signifies its status as an emerging democracy.
Evolutionary process (of power shift)
A gradual and incremental change in political institutions, laws, and traditions over time, rather than sudden or revolutionary upheaval. [9, 24, 26]
Example:
The UK's transition from an absolute monarchy to a parliamentary democracy is a prime example of an evolutionary process of power shift. [24]
Glorious Revolution
A bloodless revolution in England (1688) that established the supremacy of Parliament over the Crown, further limiting monarchical power and solidifying constitutional monarchy. [29]
Example:
The Glorious Revolution cemented the idea that the monarch's power was not absolute and was subject to the will of Parliament.
Independence (Nigeria 1960)
The year Nigeria gained full political autonomy from British colonial rule, marking the beginning of its self-governance.
Example:
Nigeria's independence in 1960 was a momentous occasion, but the country subsequently faced challenges in establishing stable democratic governance.
Legislature (as source of power)
A deliberative assembly with the authority to make laws for a political entity, serving as a key institution through which political power is exercised and shaped. [1]
Example:
In the UK, Parliament acts as a crucial legislature, holding significant power to enact laws and scrutinize the government. [1]
Magna Carta
A historic English document signed in 1215 that limited the power of the monarch and established certain rights for nobles, laying a foundation for constitutional law and limited government. [2, 19, 24, 29, 35]
Example:
The Magna Carta was a crucial early step in the UK's evolutionary shift from absolute monarchy towards parliamentary supremacy. [24]
Mao's leadership
Refers to the period (1949-1976) when Mao Zedong led the Chinese Communist Party and the People's Republic of China, characterized by revolutionary ideology, mass mobilization, and significant social and economic campaigns. [6, 41, 44]
Example:
Mao's leadership profoundly shaped modern China, initiating radical transformations like the Cultural Revolution. [6, 41]
Military Forces (as source of power)
The armed forces of a state, whose capacity for coercion and control can be used to maintain or seize political power. [1, 17]
Example:
Nigeria's history shows how military forces have often acted as a direct source of power, intervening in politics through coups. [1]
Military dictatorships
A form of authoritarian regime where political power is seized and exercised by the armed forces, often through a coup d'état. [12, 14]
Example:
Nigeria has experienced periods of military dictatorships where the army directly controlled the government and suppressed civil liberties.
Military rule (Nigeria)
Periods in Nigeria's history when the armed forces seized control of the government, suspending democratic institutions and governing through military decrees. [31]
Example:
Nigeria experienced several cycles of military rule after independence, which often led to political instability and human rights abuses.
Monarchy (Iran)
Refers to the Pahlavi dynasty that ruled Iran as a kingdom until the 1979 Revolution, characterized by a Western-oriented, secular government.
Example:
Before the revolution, Iran was a monarchy under the Shah, who pursued modernization and close ties with Western nations. [30]
Parliament
A legislative assembly in certain countries, often composed of elected representatives, responsible for making laws and overseeing the government. [2, 19]
Example:
The UK's Parliament consists of the House of Commons and the House of Lords, with the former holding primary legislative power. [2, 19]
Popular Support (as source of power)
The endorsement and acceptance of a government or leader by the general populace, which can provide legitimacy and stability to a political system. [1]
Example:
A leader's high approval ratings indicate strong popular support, which can enhance their ability to implement policies.
Power
In political science, power is the ability to influence or direct the actions, beliefs, or conduct of others, with or without resistance. It is the capacity to achieve desired outcomes, even against opposition. [8, 10, 17, 21, 23]
Example:
A country's military might gives it significant power on the international stage, allowing it to deter aggression or project influence. [17]
Prime Minister
The head of government in a parliamentary system, typically the leader of the majority party in the legislature. They are responsible for the day-to-day administration of the country. [2]
Example:
In the UK, the Prime Minister leads the executive branch and is accountable to Parliament. [2]
Putin (rise of)
Refers to Vladimir Putin's ascent to power in Russia, beginning in the late 1990s, which has been characterized by increasing centralization of power and a more authoritarian style of governance. [6]
Example:
The rise of Putin has significantly shaped contemporary Russian politics, leading to a more assertive and centralized state. [6]
Religion (as source of power)
Religious beliefs, institutions, or leaders that provide legitimacy, moral guidance, or direct control over a state's political system and laws. [1, 3]
Example:
In Iran, religion is a foundational source of power, with the Supreme Leader deriving his authority from Shiite Islamic principles. [3]
Rule of law
The principle that all individuals and institutions, including those in power, are subject to and accountable under the law, rather than arbitrary decisions. [4, 5]
Example:
In a system based on the rule of law, even the president must abide by the constitution and legal statutes. [4]
Sharia law
Islamic religious law derived from the Quran and the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad, which forms the basis of the legal system in some Islamic countries, such as Iran. [3]
Example:
Iran's judicial system is based on Sharia law, influencing everything from criminal justice to personal status laws. [3]
Shiism
A branch of Islam, specifically Twelver Shiism, which is the official state religion of Iran and forms the ideological foundation of its theocratic government. [3, 30]
Example:
Iran's political system is deeply rooted in Shiism, with religious scholars interpreting and applying Islamic law to governance. [3, 30]
Strong presidency (Russia)
Refers to the significant executive powers vested in the Russian president, often allowing for a highly centralized and dominant leadership role in the political system. [6]
Example:
Under Vladimir Putin, Russia has developed a strong presidency, concentrating considerable power in the executive branch. [6]
Theocracy
A system of government in which priests rule in the name of God or a god, or where religious law forms the basis of the state's legal and political system. [3, 30]
Example:
Iran is a theocracy where religious leaders, particularly the Supreme Leader, hold ultimate political authority and Sharia law is implemented. [3, 30]
Tsars
The emperors of Russia before the 1917 Revolution, who ruled as absolute monarchs.
Example:
The tsars of Russia wielded immense power, often resisting reforms that would limit their authority.
Western-style constitution (Iran)
Refers to the constitutional monarchy established in Iran in 1906, which aimed to limit the Shah's power and introduce parliamentary elements, influenced by European models. [32]
Example:
Iran briefly had a Western-style constitution in the early 20th century, but its principles were often undermined by the Shah's authoritarian tendencies.