Glossary
Apostrophes
Punctuation marks used to show possession for nouns, mark omitted letters in contractions, and form certain plurals (e.g., lowercase letters).
Example:
The student's essay was brilliant, and it's clear she spent hours on it.
Appositives
A noun or noun phrase that renames another noun right beside it, providing additional information, often set off by commas or dashes.
Example:
My dog, a golden retriever, loves to play fetch.
Colons
Punctuation marks used to introduce lists, explanations, or examples, or to separate two independent clauses where the second explains or illustrates the first.
Example:
There was only one crucial element missing from the experiment: the control group.
Comma Splices
A common sentence structure error where two independent clauses are incorrectly joined by only a comma, without a coordinating conjunction or semicolon.
Example:
Incorrect: The alarm rang loudly, I still couldn't wake up.
Commas
Punctuation marks used to separate independent clauses linked by FANBOYS conjunctions, set off nonessential information, list items, and introductory elements.
Example:
After a long day of studying, Sarah wanted nothing more than to relax, read a book, and enjoy a quiet evening.
Compound Modifiers
Two or more words that function as a single adjective before a noun, often joined by a hyphen to avoid ambiguity.
Example:
The well-written essay earned the highest grade in the class.
Contractions
A shortened form of a word or group of words, with an apostrophe replacing the omitted letters.
Example:
It's going to be a beautiful day tomorrow.
Dashes
Punctuation marks used to set off parenthetical elements, emphasize points, indicate a sudden shift in thought, or set off appositives.
Example:
The ancient artifact—a relic from a forgotten civilization—was finally unearthed after centuries.
Em dashes
Longer dashes (—) that can replace commas, parentheses, or colons for emphasis or to set off information.
Example:
The solution to the complex math problem—surprisingly simple once explained—eluded most students.
En dashes
Shorter dashes (–) used to show ranges (like dates or numbers) or to link compound adjectives.
Example:
The 2020–2021 school year presented unique challenges for students and teachers alike.
FANBOYS
An acronym (For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So) representing the coordinating conjunctions used to link independent clauses, often requiring a comma before them.
Example:
He wanted to go to the concert, but he couldn't find anyone to go with him.
Hyphens
Punctuation marks used to join compound words, separate prefixes from proper nouns, divide words at the end of a line, or clarify meaning in compound modifiers.
Example:
The well-known author signed copies of her much-anticipated, best-selling novel.
Independent Clauses
A group of words that contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought, capable of standing alone as a sentence.
Example:
The cat slept soundly on the couch.
Modifiers
Words, phrases, or clauses that describe or limit other words in a sentence, and must be placed close to the words they modify to avoid confusion.
Example:
Running quickly, the student arrived just in time for the exam.
Nonessential Info
Information in a sentence that provides additional detail but is not crucial to the sentence's core meaning, typically set off by commas.
Example:
My brother, who lives in California, is visiting next week.
Parentheses
Punctuation marks used to enclose extra information that is not essential to the sentence's main meaning.
Example:
The capital of France (Paris) is known for its iconic Eiffel Tower.
Possession
The state of owning or having something, indicated by an apostrophe followed by 's' for singular nouns or just an apostrophe for plural nouns ending in 's'.
Example:
The children's toys were scattered across the floor.
Quotation Marks
Punctuation marks used to enclose direct quotations, titles of short works (like articles or poems), and words used in a special or ironic way.
Example:
My English teacher always says, 'Read 'The Road Not Taken' carefully to understand its deeper meaning.'
Run-on Sentences
A common sentence structure error where two or more independent clauses are joined without any punctuation or proper conjunctions.
Example:
Incorrect: The sun was setting the sky turned a brilliant orange.
Semicolons
Punctuation marks used to join closely related independent clauses not connected by a FANBOYS conjunction, or to separate items in a complex list that already contain commas.
Example:
The concert featured a diverse lineup: a jazz trio, known for their improvisational solos; a classical quartet, celebrated for their precise harmonies; and a rock band, famous for their energetic performances.