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Who was Martin Luther?
A German theologian whose ideas inspired the Protestant Reformation and, indirectly, the German Peasants' War.
Who was Charles V?
The Habsburg ruler of the Holy Roman Empire who opposed the spread of Protestantism and fought against the Schmalkaldic League.
Who was Henry IV (Henry of Navarre)?
King of France who converted to Catholicism to secure his rule and issued the Edict of Nantes, granting religious freedom to Huguenots.
Who was Ferdinand II?
Holy Roman Emperor whose policies in Bohemia triggered the Defenestration of Prague and the Thirty Years' War.
Who was Gustavus Adolphus?
King of Sweden who intervened in the Thirty Years' War on the Protestant side, achieving significant military victories.
Who was Henry VIII?
King of England who created the Church of England to obtain a divorce, initiating the English Reformation.
Who was Elizabeth I?
Queen of England who solidified the Church of England and navigated religious tensions during her reign.
Who was Mary I?
Queen of England who briefly returned England to Catholicism, earning the nickname 'Bloody Mary'.
Who was Cardinal Richelieu?
Chief minister of France who, despite being Catholic, supported the Protestant side in the Thirty Years' War to weaken the Habsburgs.
Who was Catherine de Medici?
Queen consort of France during the French Wars of Religion, known for her complex political maneuvering.
What was the German Peasants' War?
A revolt in 1524-1525 inspired by Luther's ideas, where peasants demanded social equality and religious freedom. It was suppressed with Luther's support of the aristocracy.
What was the Peace of Augsburg (1555)?
An agreement that allowed German princes to choose either Lutheranism or Catholicism within their territories, establishing the principle of *cuius regio, eius religio*.
What was the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572)?
A massacre of Huguenots in France, escalating the French Wars of Religion.
What was the Edict of Nantes (1598)?
A decree by Henry IV of France granting religious freedom to Huguenots, ending the French Wars of Religion.
What was the Defenestration of Prague (1618)?
The act of throwing representatives of the Holy Roman Empire out of a window in Prague, triggering the Thirty Years' War.
What was the Peace of Westphalia (1648)?
A series of treaties ending the Thirty Years' War, recognizing Calvinism, weakening the Holy Roman Empire, and establishing a new European order.
What was the Schmalkaldic War?
A series of conflicts in the mid-16th century between Charles V and the Schmalkaldic League, an alliance of Protestant princes.
What was the War of the Three Henrys?
A conflict within the French Wars of Religion involving King Henry III, Henry of Navarre, and Henry I, Duke of Guise.
What was the Danish Phase of the Thirty Years' War?
A phase of the Thirty Years' War (1625-1629) where Denmark intervened to support the Protestants, but was ultimately defeated.
What was the Swedish Phase of the Thirty Years' War?
A phase of the Thirty Years' War (1630-1635) where Sweden, under Gustavus Adolphus, intervened to support the Protestants, achieving significant victories.
What is *cuius regio, eius religio*?
Whose realm, his religion; the principle that a ruler's religion determined the religion of their territory.
Define Huguenots.
French Calvinists who faced persecution during the French Wars of Religion.
What was the Edict of Nantes?
A decree issued by Henry IV of France in 1598, granting religious freedom to Huguenots.
What is the Defenestration of Prague?
The act of throwing Protestant representatives out of a window in Prague, triggering the Thirty Years' War.
What is the Peace of Westphalia?
A series of treaties in 1648 that ended the Thirty Years' War and reshaped the political and religious map of Europe.
What was the Spanish Inquisition?
An organization under Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain to eliminate Muslims and Jews, often through forced conversion or expulsion.
Define the English Reformation.
A series of events in 16th-century England by which the Church of England broke away from the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church.
What was the Schmalkaldic League?
An alliance of Lutheran princes within the Holy Roman Empire formed to defend their religious and political interests against Charles V.
What is religious pluralism?
The acceptance of multiple religious beliefs within a society.
Define the Peace of Augsburg.
A treaty in 1555 that allowed German princes to choose either Lutheranism or Catholicism as the religion of their states.