#AP Psychology Study Guide: Operant Conditioning

#Unit 6: Learning

#Operant Conditioning

#Understanding Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning, spearheaded by B.F. Skinner, is all about how the consequences of our actions shape our future behavior. Unlike classical conditioning, which deals with automatic responses, operant conditioning focuses on voluntary behaviors.

#Key Concepts and Vocabulary

• Reinforcement: Anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior happening again.

  • Positive Reinforcement (+): Adding something desirable (e.g., giving a treat after a dog sits).

* **Negative Reinforcement (-)**: *Removing* something aversive (e.g., taking away a headache by taking medicine). * **Punishment:** Anything that *decreases* the likelihood of a behavior happening again. * **Positive Punishment (+)**: *Adding* something aversive (e.g., getting a speeding ticket). * **Negative Punishment (-)**: *Removing* something desirable (e.g., taking away a teenager's phone for breaking curfew).

• Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior. It's like breaking down a complex trick into smaller, achievable steps and rewarding each step along the way.

  • Example: Teaching a dog to roll over by first rewarding them for lying down, then for rolling onto their side, and finally for a full roll.

* **Extinction:** The gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response when reinforcement is withheld.

#Schedules of Reinforcement

How often we reinforce a behavior significantly impacts how quickly it's learned and how resistant it is to extinction.

1. Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcing the behavior every single time it occurs. This leads to fast learning but also rapid extinction if the reinforcement stops.

2. Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement: Reinforcing the behavior only some of the time. This leads to slower learning but greater resistance to extinction. There are four main types:
   • Fixed-Ratio (FR): Reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses (e.g., getting paid for every 10 shirts sewn).
   • Variable-Ratio (VR): Reinforcement is given after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., slot machines). This schedule is highly resistant to extinction.
   • Fixed-Interval (FI): Reinforcement is given for the first response after a fixed amount of time has passed (e.g., getting a paycheck every two weeks).
   • Variable-Interval (VI): Reinforcement is given for the first response after an unpredictable amount of time has passed (e.g., checking your phone for messages).

#Applications of Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning principles are used in various settings, including:

• Education: Shaping behaviors, token economies, and positive reinforcement systems in classrooms.
• Parenting: Using rewards and consequences to shape children's behavior.
• Animal Training: Shaping behaviors and teaching complex tricks.
• Therapy (Behavior Modification): Addressing phobias, addictions, and other behavioral issues.

Practice Question

#Multiple Choice Questions

1. Which of the following is an example of negative reinforcement? (a) Giving a child candy for completing their homework. (b) Taking away a teenager's driving privileges for breaking curfew. (c) A student is exempt from a final exam for having perfect attendance. (d) Scolding a dog for barking excessively.

2. A pigeon is rewarded with food for pecking at a disk, but only after an average of 10 pecks. This is an example of which schedule of reinforcement? (a) Fixed-Ratio (b) Variable-Ratio (c) Fixed-Interval (d) Variable-Interval

#Short Answer Question

Briefly describe how a teacher might use shaping to improve a student's participation in class discussions.

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