Glossary
Authority
The expertise, credibility, or recognized knowledge of a source on a particular subject. A source with high authority is generally more trustworthy.
Example:
When researching medical treatments, a peer-reviewed journal article written by a doctor holds more authority than a personal blog post.
Bias
A disproportionate weight in favor of or against an idea or thing, often in a way that is closed-minded, prejudicial, or unfair. It can affect the objectivity of evidence.
Example:
A research study funded entirely by a specific company might exhibit bias in its findings, potentially favoring that company's products.
Claim-Evidence-Reasoning (CER)
A structured framework for constructing arguments, where a 'Claim' is supported by 'Evidence,' and the 'Reasoning' explains how the evidence supports the claim.
Example:
In a scientific report, the Claim-Evidence-Reasoning framework ensures that each assertion is backed by empirical data and a clear logical link.
Context
The surrounding circumstances, including the time and purpose, in which an argument or piece of evidence is presented. Understanding context is crucial for proper evaluation.
Example:
Understanding the historical context of a 19th-century scientific paper is crucial to evaluating its findings today, as scientific understanding has evolved.
Data Misrepresentation
The act of presenting data in a way that is misleading, inaccurate, or distorts the true meaning of the information. This can involve selective use or deceptive visuals.
Example:
Presenting a graph with a truncated y-axis to exaggerate a small increase in sales is a common form of data misrepresentation.
Evidence
Any information, data, or observation used to support a claim or argument. It can take many forms, including facts, statistics, observations, or expert opinions.
Example:
A researcher might use survey data as evidence to support their claim about student preferences for online learning.
Explain Relationships
A purpose of evidence where it is used to clarify the underlying reasons or mechanisms for observed connections between variables, ideas, or phenomena.
Example:
Beyond just showing a link, research aims to explain relationships by detailing the psychological or physiological mechanisms through which sleep impacts learning.
Explain Trends
A purpose of evidence where it is used to provide reasons or causes for observed patterns of change or development over time.
Example:
A historian might use primary sources to explain trends in political thought during a specific era, detailing the events that influenced public opinion.
Explanation
The part of an argument that clarifies how and why the presented evidence supports the claim. It bridges the gap between data and conclusion.
Example:
After presenting a statistic about student engagement, a strong argument provides an explanation of how that statistic directly supports the main claim about teaching effectiveness.
Identify Relationships
A purpose of evidence where it is used to show connections or correlations between different variables, ideas, or phenomena.
Example:
A study might use survey data to identify relationships between hours of sleep and academic performance among high school students.
Identify Trends
A purpose of evidence where it is used to show patterns of change or development over time in data, behaviors, or phenomena.
Example:
Economic data can be used to identify trends in consumer spending habits over the past decade, showing shifts towards online purchases.
Outdated evidence
Information or data that is no longer current or relevant due to the passage of time or new discoveries. Using it can weaken an argument significantly.
Example:
Relying on a 20-year-old study about internet usage would be using outdated evidence for a paper on current digital communication trends.
Quotes Taken Out of Context
Using a portion of a statement or text in a way that alters its original meaning, often to support a different argument than the one intended by the original speaker or author.
Example:
A political ad might use quotes taken out of context to make a candidate's statement sound negative, even if the full quote was positive.
Situation
How an argument or research fits into the broader academic conversation or existing body of knowledge. It considers what other arguments it relates to or challenges.
Example:
A new study on renewable energy must consider its situation within the broader scientific discourse on climate solutions and existing energy policies.
Stats Out of Context
Presenting statistical data without providing the necessary surrounding information or conditions, leading to a distorted or misleading interpretation.
Example:
Claiming 'sales doubled' without mentioning they went from 1 to 2 units is using stats out of context to create a false impression of growth.