Collecting Data

Bar graph

Scatterplot

Pie chart

Histogram

$\left( \frac{5}{6} \right) \times \left( \frac{5}{6} \right)$

$\left( \frac{3}{6} \right) \times \left( \frac{2}{6} \right)$

$\left( \frac{1}{6} \right)^2$

$\frac{1}{2} \times \frac{1}{2}$

One Using Cell Phones For Learning Purposes Directly Improves Student Academic Outcomes

Two High Performing Students Might Choose To Use Their Cell Phones More Often For Nonacademic Reasons Leading To Confounding Results

Increased Cell Phone Usage Could Reflect Greater Access To Educational Resources But Doesn't Necessarily Lead To Better Academics

Three There's Likely No Actual Relationship Since It Contradicts Common Assumptions About Distractions And Schoolwork

Correlation coefficient

Multiple regression

Two-sample t-test

Simple linear regression

Pearson correlation coefficient

Simple linear regression

Hierarchical linear modeling

Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA)

A spurious correlation that does not imply causation.

Deterministic correlation signaling a certain increase in damage with more firefighters.

Reverse causation where more damage necessitates more firefighters.

Direct causation where more firefighters cause more damage.

Snowball sampling

Multistage sampling

Systematic sampling

Convenience sampling

-1

0

Greater than one but less than two

1

Analyzing the visual representation of the data

Relying solely on data counts

Accepting the conclusion without questioning

Trusting the creator's intentions

Central tendency

Variability within one variable

Difference in means

Relationship between variables