Glossary
Articles of Confederation
The first governing document of the United States, adopted in 1781, which created a weak national government with limited powers, leading to significant challenges.
Example:
The inability of the national government to effectively raise an army or collect taxes under the Articles of Confederation highlighted its fundamental flaws.
Block Grants
Federal grants-in-aid given to states and localities for broad purposes, allowing states more discretion in how the funds are spent.
Example:
A federal grant for 'community development' that allows a state to decide whether to fund housing, job training, or infrastructure projects is a block grant.
Brutus 1
An Anti-Federalist essay arguing against the ratification of the Constitution, contending that a large republic would lead to an overly powerful national government that would threaten individual liberties and state sovereignty.
Example:
The concerns about the Necessary and Proper Clause leading to an overreaching federal government were central to the arguments made in Brutus 1.
Categorical Grants
Federal grants-in-aid given to states and localities for specific purposes, often with strict conditions and requirements on how the money must be spent.
Example:
Federal funding for highway construction that specifies the types of materials and safety standards to be used is an example of a categorical grant.
Checks and Balances
A system designed to prevent any one branch of government from becoming too powerful by allowing each branch to limit the powers of the others.
Example:
The President's power to veto a bill passed by Congress is a classic example of checks and balances.
Compromise on Importation of Enslaved Persons
An agreement at the Constitutional Convention that allowed Congress to ban the importation of enslaved persons, but not before 1808.
Example:
The Compromise on Importation of Enslaved Persons reflected the tension between economic interests and moral concerns regarding slavery at the nation's founding.
Concurrent Powers
Powers that are shared by both the national and state governments, such as the power to tax, build roads, or establish courts.
Example:
Both the federal government and state governments can collect income taxes, illustrating concurrent powers.
Declaration of Independence
A foundational document asserting the American colonies' separation from Britain, articulating principles of popular sovereignty and natural rights, and justifying revolution when government fails to protect those rights.
Example:
When students learn about the philosophical underpinnings of American government, they often start with the Declaration of Independence to understand the nation's core ideals.
Delegated (Enumerated) Powers
Specific powers explicitly granted to the national government by the Constitution, such as the power to declare war or coin money.
Example:
The power to establish post offices is a clear delegated (enumerated) power of the U.S. Congress.
Electoral College
A system established by the Constitution for electing the President and Vice President, where electors chosen by each state cast votes based on the popular vote within their state.
Example:
A presidential candidate can win the popular vote but lose the election if they do not secure enough votes in the Electoral College.
Elite Democracy
A model of democracy where a small number of wealthy, educated, or influential individuals hold the most power and influence in political decision-making.
Example:
Critics of campaign finance laws often argue that large political donations lead to an elite democracy, where only the rich have a real say.
Federalism
A system of government in which power is divided and shared between a national (federal) government and state governments.
Example:
The ability of states to set their own speed limits while the federal government regulates interstate commerce demonstrates federalism.
Federalist No. 10
An essay by James Madison arguing that a large republic is the best way to control the dangers of factions by diluting their power and making it harder for any single faction to dominate.
Example:
Madison's argument in Federalist No. 10 suggests that a diverse society with many competing interests actually strengthens democracy.
Federalist No. 51
An essay by James Madison explaining how the separation of powers and checks and balances within the Constitution would prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful and protect liberty.
Example:
When discussing the internal safeguards against tyranny built into the U.S. government, Federalist No. 51 is often cited.
Funded Mandates
Federal requirements imposed on states for which the federal government provides financial assistance to help states comply.
Example:
If the federal government requires states to upgrade their voting machines and provides money to cover the cost, that's a funded mandate.
Great (Connecticut) Compromise
A compromise reached at the Constitutional Convention that established a bicameral legislature, with the House of Representatives based on population and the Senate providing equal representation for each state.
Example:
The structure of Congress, with its two chambers, is a direct result of the Great (Connecticut) Compromise.
John Locke's Influence
A foundational philosopher whose ideas on natural rights (life, liberty, property), the social contract, and limited government profoundly shaped the American Founders' thinking.
Example:
The idea that people have inherent rights to life, liberty, and property, which the government cannot infringe upon, directly stems from John Locke's Influence.
Limited Government
A principle stating that the powers of government are restricted by law, usually a constitution, to protect individual rights and prevent tyranny.
Example:
The U.S. Constitution's system of checks and balances is a prime example of limited government, ensuring no single branch becomes too powerful.
Mandates
Requirements or orders imposed by the federal government on state and local governments, often as a condition for receiving federal funds.
Example:
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) is an example of a federal mandate requiring states to make public buildings accessible.
McCulloch v. Maryland
A landmark 1819 Supreme Court case that affirmed the supremacy of federal law over state law and established the doctrine of implied powers, allowing Congress to create a national bank.
Example:
The ruling in McCulloch v. Maryland solidified the idea that the federal government has powers beyond those explicitly listed in the Constitution.
Necessary and Proper Clause (Elastic Clause)
A clause in Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution that grants Congress the power to pass all laws 'necessary and proper' for carrying into execution its enumerated powers, significantly expanding federal authority.
Example:
The creation of the national bank, though not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, was justified under the Necessary and Proper Clause.
Participatory Democracy
A model of democracy emphasizing broad citizen involvement in political decision-making, often through direct participation.
Example:
A town hall meeting where all residents can speak and vote on local issues exemplifies participatory democracy.
Pluralist Democracy
A model of democracy where power is distributed among many diverse organized groups that compete for influence in the political arena.
Example:
The intense lobbying efforts by environmental groups and business associations on a new climate bill illustrate pluralist democracy in action.
Popular Sovereignty
The principle that the authority of a state and its government are created and sustained by the consent of its people, through their elected representatives, who are the source of all political power.
Example:
When citizens vote in elections, they are exercising popular sovereignty, giving legitimacy to their chosen leaders.
Reserved Powers
Powers that are not specifically granted to the national government nor denied to the states, and are therefore retained by the states or the people, as per the Tenth Amendment.
Example:
The power to establish public schools is a classic example of a reserved power held by the states.
Separation of Powers
The division of governmental authority into distinct branches—legislative, executive, and judicial—each with its own responsibilities and powers.
Example:
The fact that Congress makes laws, the President enforces them, and the Supreme Court interprets them is an example of separation of powers.
Shay's Rebellion
An armed uprising of Massachusetts farmers in 1786-1787, protesting high taxes and debt collection, which exposed the severe weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation.
Example:
The fear generated by Shay's Rebellion convinced many national leaders that a stronger central government was desperately needed.
Tenth Amendment
An amendment to the Constitution that reiterates the principle of federalism by stating that powers not delegated to the federal government, nor prohibited to the states, are reserved to the states or the people.
Example:
State laws regarding marriage or education are often defended by citing the Tenth Amendment.
Three-Fifths Compromise
An agreement at the Constitutional Convention that counted enslaved persons as three-fifths of a person for purposes of determining a state's population for representation in the House of Representatives and for taxation.
Example:
The debate over how to count enslaved populations for political power was resolved by the controversial Three-Fifths Compromise.
US v. Lopez
A landmark 1995 Supreme Court case that limited Congress's power under the Commerce Clause, ruling that the Gun-Free School Zones Act exceeded federal authority because carrying a gun in a school zone was not economic activity.
Example:
The decision in US v. Lopez marked a significant shift, reining in the federal government's use of the Commerce Clause to regulate local activities.
Unfunded Mandates
Federal requirements imposed on states for which the federal government provides no financial assistance, forcing states to bear the full cost of implementation.
Example:
When the federal government requires states to implement a new environmental regulation but offers no money to do so, it's an unfunded mandate.