Glossary
Afghanistan (Soviet invasion)
The Soviet Union's military intervention in Afghanistan in December 1979, aimed at supporting the communist government against mujahideen rebels.
Example:
The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan led to a U.S. boycott of the 1980 Moscow Olympics and further escalated Cold War tensions.
Alger Hiss
A former U.S. government official accused in 1948 of being a Soviet spy and convicted of perjury in 1950, becoming a symbol of the Second Red Scare.
Example:
The highly publicized case of Alger Hiss fueled public anxieties about communist espionage within the American government.
American Indian Movement
An Indigenous rights organization founded in 1968, advocating for Native American sovereignty, treaty rights, and addressing issues of poverty and discrimination.
Example:
The American Indian Movement engaged in protests like the occupation of Alcatraz and Wounded Knee to draw attention to historical injustices and demand self-determination.
Baby Boom
A significant increase in the birth rate in the United States following World War II, lasting from the mid-1940s to the early 1960s.
Example:
The Baby Boom generation grew up to become a massive demographic force, influencing everything from school construction to popular culture.
Bay of Pigs (1961)
A failed U.S.-backed invasion of Cuba by Cuban exiles in 1961, intended to overthrow Fidel Castro's communist government.
Example:
The disastrous Bay of Pigs invasion was a major foreign policy embarrassment for the young Kennedy administration.
Berlin Wall (1961)
A fortified barrier constructed by East Germany in 1961, physically dividing East and West Berlin and symbolizing the division of Germany and the Cold War.
Example:
The construction of the Berlin Wall trapped East Germans and became a stark symbol of communist oppression and the Iron Curtain.
Betty Friedan
An American feminist writer and activist, best known for her 1963 book 'The Feminine Mystique,' which is credited with sparking the second-wave feminist movement.
Example:
Betty Friedan's book articulated the widespread dissatisfaction among many suburban women, challenging the notion that domesticity was their sole fulfillment.
Birmingham
A city in Alabama that became a focal point of the Civil Rights Movement in 1963, known for its violent suppression of peaceful protests, including the use of police dogs and fire hoses.
Example:
The brutal images from Birmingham of police attacking peaceful demonstrators shocked the nation and galvanized support for civil rights legislation.
Brown v. Board of Education
A landmark 1954 Supreme Court case that ruled state-sponsored segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, overturning the 'separate but equal' doctrine.
Example:
Brown v. Board of Education was a pivotal moment in the Civil Rights Movement, legally challenging the foundation of racial segregation.
CIA
The Central Intelligence Agency, a U.S. government agency responsible for collecting and analyzing foreign intelligence and conducting covert operations.
Example:
The CIA engaged in numerous covert operations during the Cold War, including orchestrating coups in countries like Iran and Guatemala.
CORE
The Congress of Racial Equality, a civil rights organization founded in 1942, known for pioneering nonviolent direct action, such as the Freedom Rides.
Example:
CORE organized the Freedom Rides to challenge segregation on interstate buses, facing violent opposition but drawing national attention to the cause.
Camp David Accords
A peace treaty signed in 1978 between Egypt and Israel, brokered by U.S. President Jimmy Carter at Camp David, Maryland.
Example:
The Camp David Accords were a significant diplomatic achievement for President Carter, bringing a historic peace agreement between two long-standing Middle Eastern adversaries.
Cesar Chavez
An American labor leader and civil rights activist who co-founded the United Farm Workers (UFW) and used nonviolent tactics to advocate for the rights of farmworkers.
Example:
Cesar Chavez organized boycotts of grapes to pressure growers into improving wages and working conditions for migrant laborers.
Civil Rights Act of 1964
Landmark legislation that outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, ending segregation in public places and employment.
Example:
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was a monumental achievement of the movement, legally dismantling Jim Crow laws and promoting equality.
Cold War
A geopolitical rivalry between the United States and its allies and the Soviet Union and its satellite states, lasting from the mid-1940s to the early 1990s, characterized by ideological conflict and proxy wars.
Example:
The entire second half of the 20th century was largely defined by the ideological struggle of the Cold War, impacting global politics and domestic policies.
Containment
The core U.S. foreign policy strategy during the Cold War, aimed at preventing the spread of communism beyond its existing borders.
Example:
The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan were key components of the Containment policy, providing aid to prevent communist takeovers.
Credibility Gap
A term that emerged during the Vietnam War, referring to the public's growing distrust of statements made by the U.S. government, particularly regarding the war's progress.
Example:
As casualty figures mounted and the war dragged on, a significant Credibility Gap developed between official government reports and public perception.
Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)
A 13-day confrontation in October 1962 between the United States and the Soviet Union over Soviet ballistic missiles deployed in Cuba, bringing the world to the brink of nuclear war.
Example:
The Cuban Missile Crisis was arguably the most dangerous moment of the Cold War, resolved through intense negotiations and a naval blockade.
Eisenhower Doctrine (1957)
A U.S. foreign policy statement that committed American military and economic aid to Middle Eastern nations threatened by communist aggression.
Example:
The Eisenhower Doctrine was a response to the growing Soviet influence in the Middle East, aiming to protect vital oil interests and regional stability.
Flexible Response
A defense strategy implemented by the Kennedy administration, advocating for a range of military options to respond to aggression, rather than sole reliance on nuclear weapons.
Example:
Kennedy's Flexible Response aimed to give the U.S. more options than just nuclear war, allowing for conventional military action in limited conflicts.
GI Bill
Officially the Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944, this legislation provided a range of benefits to returning World War II veterans, including low-interest home loans and educational assistance.
Example:
Thanks to the GI Bill, many veterans were able to attend college, leading to a more educated workforce and contributing to post-war prosperity.
Gay and Lesbian Movement
A social and political movement advocating for the rights, acceptance, and equality of LGBTQ+ individuals, gaining significant momentum after the Stonewall Riots.
Example:
The Gay and Lesbian Movement fought against discrimination and for legal protections, leading to increased visibility and acceptance over time.
Great Society
President Lyndon B. Johnson's ambitious set of domestic programs launched in the mid-1960s, aimed at eliminating poverty and racial injustice.
Example:
The Great Society initiatives included landmark legislation like Medicare and Medicaid, expanding the federal government's role in social welfare.
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
A 1964 congressional resolution that authorized President Lyndon B. Johnson to take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against U.S. forces and prevent further aggression in Vietnam.
Example:
The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution significantly expanded presidential war powers and paved the way for increased U.S. military involvement in Vietnam.
Hippies
Members of the counterculture movement of the 1960s, characterized by their rejection of mainstream societal norms, advocacy for peace, and embrace of alternative lifestyles.
Example:
The Hippies often expressed their dissent through their music, fashion, and communal living, challenging traditional American values.
Iranian Hostage Crisis
A diplomatic crisis that began in November 1979 when Iranian students seized the U.S. embassy in Tehran and held 52 American diplomats hostage for 444 days.
Example:
The prolonged Iranian Hostage Crisis severely damaged President Carter's public image and contributed to his defeat in the 1980 election.
Iron Curtain
A metaphorical term coined by Winston Churchill to describe the political and ideological division between Western Europe and the Soviet-dominated Eastern European countries after World War II.
Example:
The Iron Curtain symbolized the stark division of Europe, with free market democracies on one side and communist states on the other.
Jackie Robinson
An American professional baseball player who broke the color barrier in Major League Baseball in 1947, becoming the first African American to play in the modern era.
Example:
Jackie Robinson's courage and talent in integrating baseball paved the way for further advancements in the Civil Rights Movement.
John Foster Dulles
U.S. Secretary of State under President Dwight D. Eisenhower, known for advocating an aggressive stance against communism and developing the policy of Massive Retaliation.
Example:
John Foster Dulles was a staunch anti-communist who believed in a strong, proactive foreign policy to counter Soviet influence worldwide.
Keeping up with the Joneses
A social phenomenon describing the desire to match or exceed the material possessions and lifestyle of one's neighbors or peers, fueling consumerism.
Example:
The post-war era saw a rise in consumer culture, where families often felt pressure to buy new appliances and cars, constantly keeping up with the Joneses.
Kent State Shootings
The May 4, 1970, incident where Ohio National Guardsmen opened fire on unarmed college students protesting the Vietnam War, killing four and wounding nine.
Example:
The Kent State Shootings sparked outrage across the nation and intensified the anti-war movement on college campuses.
Korean War
A proxy war during the Cold War (1950-1953) fought between North Korea (supported by China and the Soviet Union) and South Korea (supported by the United Nations, primarily the U.S.).
Example:
The Korean War was the first major military conflict of the Cold War, demonstrating the U.S. commitment to containing communism through armed intervention.
Levittown
Large-scale suburban housing developments built after World War II, characterized by mass-produced, affordable homes.
Example:
After the war, many returning soldiers and their families moved to places like Levittown to find affordable housing and a new community.
Little Rock Nine
A group of nine African American students who, in 1957, were prevented from entering Little Rock Central High School in Arkansas by segregationist mobs and the state's governor, requiring federal intervention.
Example:
President Eisenhower sent federal troops to protect the Little Rock Nine, demonstrating the federal government's commitment to enforcing school desegregation.
March on Washington
A massive civil rights demonstration held in Washington D.C. in August 1963, where Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his iconic 'I Have a Dream' speech.
Example:
The March on Washington brought together hundreds of thousands of people, putting immense pressure on Congress to pass comprehensive civil rights legislation.
Massive Retaliation
A Cold War military doctrine adopted by the Eisenhower administration, threatening a full-scale nuclear response to any Soviet aggression, regardless of its scale.
Example:
The policy of Massive Retaliation aimed to deter Soviet expansion by emphasizing the devastating consequences of nuclear war.
McCarthyism
A campaign led by Senator Joseph McCarthy during the Second Red Scare, characterized by aggressive and often unsubstantiated accusations of disloyalty, subversion, or treason, particularly against suspected communists.
Example:
During the height of McCarthyism, many innocent individuals in Hollywood and government had their careers ruined by baseless accusations of communist sympathies.
Medicaid
A federal and state program established in 1965 under the Great Society, providing health coverage to low-income individuals and families.
Example:
Medicaid aimed to ensure that even the poorest Americans could receive necessary medical treatment, reducing health disparities.
Medicare
A federal health insurance program established in 1965 under the Great Society, primarily for people aged 65 or older.
Example:
Medicare provided essential health coverage for millions of elderly Americans, significantly improving their access to medical care.
Miranda v. Arizona
A landmark 1966 Supreme Court case that ruled that criminal suspects must be informed of their constitutional right to an attorney and against self-incrimination before police questioning.
Example:
The Miranda v. Arizona decision established the 'Miranda warnings,' which police officers must now recite to suspects upon arrest.
My Lai Massacre
The mass killing of unarmed Vietnamese civilians by U.S. soldiers in the village of My Lai in March 1968, which became public in 1969 and fueled anti-war sentiment.
Example:
The horrific details of the My Lai Massacre further eroded public trust in the military and the government's conduct of the Vietnam War.
NATO (1949)
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, a military alliance formed by the U.S., Canada, and several Western European nations, pledging collective defense against potential Soviet aggression.
Example:
The formation of NATO marked a significant shift in U.S. foreign policy, committing the nation to a peacetime military alliance.
New Look
Eisenhower's defense policy during the Cold War, which emphasized reliance on nuclear weapons and air power rather than conventional forces, alongside covert operations.
Example:
The New Look strategy allowed Eisenhower to reduce military spending on conventional forces while still maintaining a powerful deterrent against the Soviet Union.
Pentagon Papers
A secret Department of Defense study of U.S. political and military involvement in Vietnam from 1945 to 1967, leaked to the New York Times in 1971, revealing government deception.
Example:
The publication of the Pentagon Papers exposed the extent to which the government had misled the public about the Vietnam War, deepening the credibility gap.
Ping Pong Diplomacy
The exchange of table tennis players between the U.S. and China in the early 1970s, which marked a thaw in U.S.-China relations and paved the way for Nixon's visit.
Example:
Ping Pong Diplomacy was a surprising and symbolic gesture that helped bridge decades of animosity between the United States and Communist China.
Red Scare
Periods of intense anti-communist hysteria and fear in the United States, characterized by widespread suspicion and persecution of suspected communists.
Example:
The Red Scare led to loyalty oaths and investigations, creating an atmosphere of paranoia where even innocent associations could lead to accusations.
Roe v. Wade
A landmark 1973 Supreme Court decision that established a woman's constitutional right to an abortion, based on the right to privacy.
Example:
Roe v. Wade sparked a lasting national debate over abortion rights, dividing political and social groups.
Rosenbergs
Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, an American couple executed in 1953 for conspiring to commit espionage by passing atomic bomb secrets to the Soviet Union.
Example:
The execution of the Rosenbergs was a controversial moment during the Cold War, intensifying debates about national security and civil liberties.
SCLC
The Southern Christian Leadership Conference, an influential civil rights organization founded in 1957 by Martin Luther King Jr. and other Black ministers, advocating for nonviolent protest.
Example:
The SCLC played a crucial role in organizing major civil rights campaigns, including the Birmingham protests and the March on Washington.
SNCC
The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, a prominent civil rights organization formed in 1960, known for its grassroots activism and empowering young people.
Example:
SNCC was instrumental in organizing sit-ins and voter registration drives, often putting young activists on the front lines of the movement.
Second Red Scare
A period of intense anti-communist fear and persecution in the United States following World War II, fueled by Cold War tensions and concerns about Soviet espionage.
Example:
The trials of Alger Hiss and the Rosenbergs were prominent events during the Second Red Scare, highlighting fears of communist infiltration at home.
Southern Manifesto
A document signed in 1956 by 101 Southern members of Congress, denouncing the Supreme Court's Brown v. Board of Education decision and pledging to resist racial integration.
Example:
The Southern Manifesto illustrated the widespread political resistance to desegregation in the South, signaling a long and difficult struggle ahead.
Soviet Union
A communist state that existed from 1922 to 1991, serving as the primary ideological and geopolitical rival to the United States during the Cold War.
Example:
The Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik intensified the space race, prompting the U.S. to invest heavily in science and technology education.
Sputnik (1957)
The first artificial Earth satellite, launched by the Soviet Union in 1957, which shocked the U.S. and ignited the Space Race.
Example:
The launch of Sputnik prompted the U.S. to significantly increase funding for science and math education, fearing a technological gap with the Soviets.
Sunbelt
A region of the United States generally stretching across the South and Southwest, which experienced significant population and economic growth after World War II.
Example:
The warm climate and new job opportunities in the Sunbelt attracted millions of Americans seeking a fresh start in the post-war era.
TET Offensive (1968)
A major military campaign during the Vietnam War launched by North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces in January 1968, attacking numerous South Vietnamese cities and U.S. bases.
Example:
Despite being a military defeat for North Vietnam, the TET Offensive shattered American public confidence in the war's winnability and fueled the anti-war movement.
Television
A new mass medium that became widely available in American homes after World War II, profoundly shaping culture, news consumption, and advertising.
Example:
Early television shows like 'I Love Lucy' brought shared cultural experiences into millions of American living rooms, influencing fashion and family dynamics.
The Feminine Mystique
A groundbreaking 1963 book by Betty Friedan that explored the widespread unhappiness of women in the 1950s and early 1960s, challenging the societal expectation that women find fulfillment solely through domesticity.
Example:
The Feminine Mystique resonated with countless women, helping to ignite the modern feminist movement by giving a voice to their unspoken frustrations.
Truman Doctrine (1947)
A U.S. foreign policy initiative that pledged American support to free peoples resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or outside pressures, primarily aimed at countering Soviet influence.
Example:
The Truman Doctrine was first applied by providing economic and military aid to Greece and Turkey, helping them resist communist insurgencies.
U-2 Incident
The 1960 incident in which a U.S. U-2 spy plane was shot down over Soviet airspace, leading to a major diplomatic crisis and the capture of pilot Francis Gary Powers.
Example:
The U-2 Incident exposed American espionage activities and severely damaged U.S.-Soviet relations just before a planned summit.
Vietnamization
A policy of the Nixon administration to gradually withdraw U.S. troops from Vietnam and transfer the responsibility of fighting the war to the South Vietnamese army.
Example:
Vietnamization was Nixon's strategy to end American involvement in the war while still supporting South Vietnam against communist forces.
Voting Rights Act of 1965
Landmark legislation that prohibited racial discrimination in voting, outlawing literacy tests and other discriminatory practices.
Example:
The Voting Rights Act of 1965 dramatically increased African American voter registration and participation, especially in the South.
Watergate Scandal
A major political scandal in the 1970s involving a break-in at the Democratic National Committee headquarters and subsequent cover-up by the Nixon administration, leading to President Nixon's resignation.
Example:
The Watergate Scandal led to unprecedented public cynicism about government and demonstrated the power of the press in holding leaders accountable.
Woodstock
A legendary music festival held in August 1969 in upstate New York, which became an iconic symbol of the counterculture movement and peace and love.
Example:
Woodstock drew hundreds of thousands of young people, showcasing the power of music and communal spirit within the counterculture.