Glossary
Bicameral
A bicameral legislature is a governmental system with two separate legislative chambers or houses, typically an upper and a lower house. This structure is designed to provide checks and balances and allow for diverse representation. [9, 15, 16, 27, 40]
Example:
The United States Congress, with its House of Representatives and Senate, is a classic example of a bicameral legislature, ensuring broad representation and careful deliberation of laws.
Chamber of Deputies (Mexico)
The Chamber of Deputies is the directly elected lower house of Mexico's bicameral legislature, responsible for verifying elections, levying taxes, and approving legislation. [1, 8, 13, 28, 30]
Example:
The Chamber of Deputies debated the proposed national budget, with members from various districts advocating for increased funding in their respective states.
Communist Party Controlled System
A Communist Party Controlled System is a political system where a single communist party holds ultimate authority and controls all aspects of government and society, often with legislative bodies serving to legitimize party decisions. [4, 22]
Example:
China operates under a Communist Party Controlled System, where the National People's Congress, while appearing to legislate, ultimately follows the directives of the Chinese Communist Party.
Federation Council (Russia)
The Federation Council is the appointed upper house of Russia's Federal Assembly, representing the regions. It has limited power and can be overridden by the State Duma. [2]
Example:
Though the Federation Council represents Russia's diverse regions, its ability to significantly alter legislation passed by the Duma is often constrained.
Guardian Council (Iran)
The Guardian Council is a powerful unelected body in Iran composed of clerics and jurists. It vets candidates for elections and has the authority to veto legislation passed by the Majles if deemed inconsistent with Islamic principles or the constitution. [1, 5, 11, 23, 26, 32]
Example:
The Guardian Council disqualified several reformist candidates from running in the parliamentary elections, significantly shaping the political landscape before votes were even cast.
House of Commons (UK)
The House of Commons is the directly elected lower chamber of the UK Parliament, where the majority party selects the Prime Minister. It is the primary legislative body, responsible for passing laws and holding the executive accountable. [2, 7, 18, 31, 42]
Example:
After a contentious debate, the new healthcare reform bill was passed by a narrow margin in the House of Commons, reflecting the will of the elected representatives.
House of Lords (UK)
The House of Lords is the unelected upper chamber of the UK Parliament, primarily composed of life peers appointed for distinguished service and a small number of hereditary peers. It can delay legislation and debate technicalities but has limited power compared to the lower house. [2, 18, 44]
Example:
While the House of Commons debated the budget, the House of Lords reviewed the intricate details of a new environmental bill, offering amendments but ultimately unable to block its passage.
House of Representatives (Nigeria)
The House of Representatives is the directly elected lower house of Nigeria's bicameral National Assembly, with members elected from single-member districts. It shares the responsibility of passing legislation with the Senate. [2, 12, 19, 38]
Example:
A new bill addressing youth unemployment was introduced in the House of Representatives, reflecting a key concern of the populace.
Majles (Iran)
The Majles is Iran's unicameral, directly elected legislative body, responsible for enacting laws, approving budgets, and treaties. Its power is significantly limited by the Guardian Council and the Supreme Leader. [1, 11, 23, 24, 28]
Example:
The Majles passed a new law on public education, but its implementation depended on the subsequent approval and vetting by the Guardian Council.
National People's Congress (NPC) (China)
The National People's Congress (NPC) is China's unicameral legislature, indirectly elected but controlled by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Its primary function is to legitimize party decisions and formally choose top government officials. [1, 28, 30]
Example:
During its annual session, the National People's Congress formally approved the government's five-year economic plan, a decision largely predetermined by the CCP leadership.
Parliamentary Hybrid
A parliamentary hybrid system combines elements of both parliamentary and presidential systems, typically featuring a directly elected president with significant executive powers alongside a prime minister appointed by the legislature. [2, 34, 35]
Example:
Russia's political system is a parliamentary hybrid, where the directly elected President holds substantial power, but a Prime Minister is also appointed, creating a unique power dynamic.
Parliamentary System
A parliamentary system is a form of government where the executive branch (Prime Minister and Cabinet) is chosen from and accountable to the legislative branch (Parliament). There is a fusion of powers between the executive and legislative branches. [3, 10, 17, 18, 25, 33]
Example:
In a parliamentary system like the UK, if the ruling party loses a vote of no confidence, the Prime Minister and their cabinet must resign, potentially triggering new elections.
Presidential System
A presidential system is a form of government where the president is directly elected by the people and serves as both head of state and head of government, with a clear separation of powers from the legislative branch. [8, 10, 25, 39]
Example:
In a presidential system like Mexico, the president is elected independently of the legislature and forms their own cabinet, maintaining distinct powers.
Proportional Representation
Proportional representation is an electoral system where legislative seats are allocated to political parties in proportion to the total number of votes they receive. This system aims to ensure that a party's share of seats closely reflects its share of the popular vote. [1, 28, 30, 41, 42]
Example:
In a country using proportional representation, if a party wins 20% of the national vote, it would typically receive approximately 20% of the seats in the legislature, allowing smaller parties to gain representation.
Senate (Mexico)
The Senate is the directly elected upper house of Mexico's bicameral legislature, responsible for confirming presidential appointments, approving treaties, and intervening in state matters. [8, 13]
Example:
The President's nominee for the Supreme Court faced a rigorous confirmation hearing in the Senate, highlighting its role in checking executive power.
Senate (Nigeria)
The Senate is the directly elected upper house of Nigeria's bicameral National Assembly, with equal representation from each state. It has powers to impeach the President and confirm presidential appointees, in addition to passing legislation. [2, 12, 19, 38]
Example:
The President's cabinet nominees underwent scrutiny and confirmation by the Senate, demonstrating its significant oversight role.
Single-member districts
Single-member districts are an electoral system where each geographic district elects only one representative to a legislative body, typically by plurality vote (first-past-the-post). [1, 28, 30, 41, 42]
Example:
In a country with single-member districts, a candidate only needs to win more votes than any other candidate in their specific district to secure a seat, even if they don't achieve a majority.
State Duma (Russia)
The State Duma is the directly elected lower house of Russia's Federal Assembly, responsible for passing laws, confirming presidential appointees, and approving the budget. Its power is often limited by the President's influence. [2, 7]
Example:
The State Duma convened to discuss new economic sanctions, but many anticipated the President's decrees would ultimately shape the final policy.
Theocratic System
A theocratic system is a form of government where religious leaders hold political power, and religious law serves as the basis for governance. [4, 20, 21, 22, 24]
Example:
Iran operates under a theocratic system, where the Supreme Leader, a religious authority, holds ultimate political power and ensures laws align with Islamic principles.
Unicameral
A unicameral legislature is a governmental system with a single legislative chamber or house responsible for creating and passing laws. This structure often prioritizes efficiency and simplicity in lawmaking. [29, 40]
Example:
A small island nation, aiming for rapid policy implementation, might adopt a unicameral system to avoid legislative gridlock and streamline decision-making.