Renaissance Humanism focused on classical learning, individualism, and secularism, while Northern Humanism emphasized religious themes and sought to improve society through Christian principles.

While western Europe saw the rise of centralized monarchies, the Holy Roman Empire in central Europe remained politically decentralized with many political units.

Causes: Rediscovery of classical texts, increased wealth in Italian city-states, patronage of the arts. Effects: Flourishing of art and literature, rise of humanism, questioning of traditional authority.

Causes: Desire for centralized power, weakening of feudal lords. Effects: Increased royal authority, establishment of standing armies, development of nation-states.

Causes: Desire for new trade routes, wealth, and Christian converts, advancements in maritime technology. Effects: Columbian Exchange, Atlantic Slave Trade, rise of colonial empires.

Causes: European exploration and colonization of the Americas. Effects: Exchange of plants, animals, and diseases between the Old and New Worlds, demographic shifts, and agricultural changes.

Causes: Demand for labor in the Americas, European colonization, and economic incentives. Effects: Devastation of African societies, immense profits for European merchants, and the establishment of racial hierarchies in the Americas.

Causes: The desire to spread knowledge and ideas more efficiently. Effects: Increased literacy rates, spread of humanist ideas, and the growth of vernacular literature.

Causes: The desire to combine classical learning with religious devotion. Effects: Emphasis on religious themes, efforts to improve society through Christian principles, and the promotion of biblical scholarship.

Causes: The desire for valuable trade connections, Christian allies, claiming land in the Americas and establishing trading posts in Africa and Asia. Effects: Exploitation of Indigenous populations, extraction of valuable materials, and the establishment of social hierarchies.

Causes: Overseas trade and the growth of cities. Effects: Shift from producing goods at home to purchasing them in markets, growth of banking, trade, and joint-stock companies.

The monarchs of Spain who sponsored exploration, unified the country, and supported the Spanish Inquisition.

A Portuguese prince who sponsored voyages of exploration along the African coast, advancing maritime technology and trade.

The Holy Roman Emperor who faced challenges from the Protestant Reformation and sought to maintain religious unity.

The King of France and a patron of the arts who competed with Charles V for power in Europe.

The King of England who broke with the Catholic Church and established the Church of England.

An Italian Renaissance artist known for his sculptures, paintings, and architectural achievements, including the Sistine Chapel ceiling.

An Italian scholar and poet considered the 'father of humanism,' who rediscovered and promoted classical texts.

An Italian diplomat and political philosopher who wrote 'The Prince,' advocating for pragmatic and often ruthless political tactics.

A French jurist and political philosopher who advocated for strong, centralized monarchies.

The French Minister of Finance under Louis XIV, who implemented mercantilist policies to strengthen the French economy.