Renaissance Humanism focused on classical learning, individualism, and secularism, while Northern Humanism emphasized religious themes and sought to improve society through Christian principles.

While western Europe saw the rise of centralized monarchies, the Holy Roman Empire in central Europe remained politically decentralized with many political units.

A period of intellectual and artistic flourishing that began in Italy in the 14th century, marking a 'rebirth' of classical ideas.

The writings and art of ancient Greece and Rome, which served as inspiration during the Renaissance.

An intellectual movement emphasizing individualism, secularism, and classical learning, focusing on human potential and achievements.

A technique used in art to create the illusion of depth on a flat surface, making paintings look more lifelike.

Writing in common languages, as opposed to Latin, which increased access to knowledge during the Renaissance.

Kings and queens in England, France, and Spain who gained more direct power by centralizing control over taxation, armies, law courts, and religion.

Sailing equipment and navigational tools that enabled European explorers to venture farther during overseas expansion.

Territories established by European powers, often focused on extracting valuable materials and exploiting Indigenous populations.

The long-term process of organisms, including plants, animals, and diseases, moving between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres.

The forced trafficking of millions of enslaved Africans to the Americas, generating huge profits for European merchants and governments.

A shift in Europe from producing goods at home to purchasing them in markets, leading to the growth of banking, trade, and joint-stock companies.

The monarchs of Spain who sponsored exploration, unified the country, and supported the Spanish Inquisition.

A Portuguese prince who sponsored voyages of exploration along the African coast, advancing maritime technology and trade.

The Holy Roman Emperor who faced challenges from the Protestant Reformation and sought to maintain religious unity.

The King of France and a patron of the arts who competed with Charles V for power in Europe.

The King of England who broke with the Catholic Church and established the Church of England.

An Italian Renaissance artist known for his sculptures, paintings, and architectural achievements, including the Sistine Chapel ceiling.

An Italian scholar and poet considered the 'father of humanism,' who rediscovered and promoted classical texts.

An Italian diplomat and political philosopher who wrote 'The Prince,' advocating for pragmatic and often ruthless political tactics.

A French jurist and political philosopher who advocated for strong, centralized monarchies.

The French Minister of Finance under Louis XIV, who implemented mercantilist policies to strengthen the French economy.