A political system where a monarch holds supreme autocratic authority, not restricted by laws or a constitution.

A period of major industrialization that took place during the late 1700s and early 1800s, characterized by new technologies and manufacturing processes.

An economic theory that promotes governmental regulation of a nation's economy for the purpose of augmenting state power at the expense of rival national powers.

An intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century, emphasizing reason and individualism.

An artistic, literary, musical, and intellectual movement that originated in Europe toward the end of the 18th century, emphasizing emotion and individualism.

Independent states that possess full control over their own affairs within their territorial boundaries.

Agriculture undertaken primarily for sale, rather than consumption by the farmer and their family.

The act of using resources, especially natural resources, for economic growth, often at the expense of environmental or social well-being.

The process by which towns and cities are formed and become larger as more and more people begin living and working in central areas.

The amount by which the value of a country's exports exceeds the value of its imports.

Causes: New technologies, increased trade, and agricultural advancements. Effects: Urbanization, new social classes, and economic growth.

Causes: Social inequality, economic crisis, and Enlightenment ideas. Effects: Overthrow of the monarchy, rise of Napoleon, and spread of revolutionary ideals.

Causes: Desire for resources, new markets, and political dominance. Effects: Exploitation of colonies, wealth consolidation in Europe, and reshaping of global trade.

Causes: Scientific Revolution, questioning of tradition, and emphasis on reason. Effects: New political ideas, challenges to authority, and social reform movements.

Causes: End of the Thirty Years' War. Effects: Established sovereign states and shifted power dynamics in Europe.

Causes: Concerns over James II's pro-Catholic policies. Effects: Established Britain as a major power and led to democratic reforms.

Causes: Competition for colonial territories and resources. Effects: France lost to Britain, leading to internal tensions and contributing to the French Revolution.

Causes: The Scientific Revolution. Effects: Questioning of established norms and beliefs during the Enlightenment.

Causes: Reaction to the Enlightenment's focus on rationalism. Effects: Rise of Romanticism, prioritizing feelings, intuition, and imagination.

Causes: New farming techniques and technologies. Effects: Transition from subsistence farming to commercial agriculture and increased productivity.

A series of peace treaties signed in 1648 that ended the Thirty Years' War in the Holy Roman Empire and the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Dutch Republic, establishing the concept of sovereign states.

The overthrow of King James II of England in 1688 by a union of English Parliamentarians with the Dutch William III, resulting in a constitutional monarchy.

Legislation that united England and Scotland into the single kingdom of Great Britain.

A global conflict fought between 1756 and 1763 involving most of the great powers of Europe and spanning multiple continents.

A period of social and political upheaval in late 1700's France that ultimately toppled the monarchy and established a republic.

It revolutionized manufacturing and transportation, leading to increased productivity and new industries during the Industrial Revolution.

It limited the power of the monarchy and established rights for Parliament and individuals, contributing to democratic reforms.

It granted religious freedom to nonconformists in England, though it did not extend to Catholics or Unitarians.

It legalized the use of martial law in the British army, but also established certain rights for soldiers, contributing to the rule of law.

It led to mass migration to cities, urbanization, and new social classes, transforming European society.