Conflict, Crisis, and Reaction in the Late 18th Century

Both leaders modernized their armies based on Western models.

Peter relied on traditional Russian tactics, while Charles sought to modernize the Swedish army.

Neither leader made significant changes in military strategies during their reigns.

Peter modernized his army based on Western models while Charles relied on traditional Swedish tactics and formations.

By promoting military expansionism as a nation's primary goal.

By fostering ideas about reason, natural rights, and social contract theory.

By urging increased religious influence on state affairs.

By advocating for absolute monarchy as an ideal form of government.

Thomas Hobbes

John Locke

Denis Diderot

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

She led a peasant rebellion against tsarist rule.

She expanded Russia's territory and sought to modernize its society while maintaining monarchic control.

She established Russia's first democratic constitution.

She abdicated her position to establish a republican form of government.

Formation of Scottish Parliament

Re-establishment of Catholic monarchy

Independence from England

Destruction of traditional Highland culture

By disseminating Enlightenment ideas widely, it encouraged critical thinking and questioning established norms.

By prioritising religious teachings over empirical knowledge, it reinforced the authority of the Church.

By focusing only on scientific discoveries, it neglecting arts and humanities fields during this period.

By isolating different disciplines, it discouraged interdisciplinary understanding and appreciation among intellectuals.

Napoleon Bonaparte

Charles V

Louis XIV

Henry IV

Taxation without representation

Trade restrictions with Asia

Religious conflicts

Feudalism

Peasant revolts against feudal lords within European kingdoms.

Competition for colonial territories and trade routes.

A desire to balance power among European dynasties.

Religious conflicts between Protestant and Catholic states.

Both rulers expanded serfdom in their respective territories.

Frederick the Great introduced comprehensive legal reforms while Catherine the Great expanded serfdom.

Frederick the Great abolished serfdom while Catherine the Great introduced legal reforms.

Both rulers introduced education reforms in their respective territories.