Glossary
Absolutism
A political theory and form of government where unlimited, centralized power is held by a monarch or dictator, often claiming divine right.
Example:
Louis XIV of France epitomized absolutism, famously declaring 'L'état, c'est moi' (I am the state) and centralizing all power at Versailles.
Act of Union (1707)
The parliamentary acts that united the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland into a single, united kingdom called Great Britain.
Example:
The Act of Union (1707) created a unified British Parliament and a shared economic market, but Scotland retained its distinct legal and educational systems.
Bill of Rights (1689 - British)
An English act of Parliament that limited the powers of the monarch and established rights for Parliament and individuals, following the Glorious Revolution.
Example:
The Bill of Rights ensured that the monarch could not suspend laws or levy taxes without parliamentary consent, fundamentally altering the balance of power.
Commercial Agriculture
A system of farming focused on producing crops and livestock for sale in markets rather than for direct consumption by the farmer, often involving larger landholdings and new techniques.
Example:
The enclosure movement in England facilitated the growth of commercial agriculture, leading to larger, more efficient farms and a surplus of food for growing urban populations.
Enlightenment
An intellectual and cultural movement of the 18th century emphasizing reason, individualism, and skepticism toward traditional authority.
Example:
Thinkers like John Locke and Voltaire were central figures of the Enlightenment, advocating for natural rights, religious tolerance, and government by consent.
European Colonialism
The policy or practice of acquiring full or partial political control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically.
Example:
British European colonialism in India involved extracting raw materials like cotton and selling finished goods back to the Indian market, enriching the mother country.
Factory System
A method of manufacturing using machinery and division of labor, where all processes are centralized in one location, typically a large building.
Example:
The factory system transformed textile production, bringing workers together under one roof to operate power looms and spinning jennies, increasing output dramatically.
French Revolution
A period of radical social and political upheaval in France from 1789 to 1799, which profoundly affected French and modern history.
Example:
The storming of the Bastille marked a symbolic beginning of the French Revolution, challenging the absolute monarchy and feudal system.
Glorious Revolution
The largely bloodless overthrow of King James II of England in 1688, leading to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy under William and Mary.
Example:
The Glorious Revolution solidified parliamentary supremacy in England, paving the way for the English Bill of Rights and limiting monarchical power.
Industrial Revolution
A period of major technological innovation and economic transformation beginning in the late 18th century, characterized by the shift from agrarian and handicraft economies to industrial and machine-manufacturing ones.
Example:
The Industrial Revolution fundamentally reshaped European society, leading to the rise of factory towns and a new urban working class.
Mercantilism
An economic theory and practice, prevalent from the 16th to 18th centuries, that promoted governmental regulation of a nation's economy for the purpose of augmenting state power at the expense of rival national powers.
Example:
Under mercantilism, European powers sought to export more goods than they imported, accumulating gold and silver to strengthen the mother country and its military.
Napoleon Bonaparte
A French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and conquered much of Europe, establishing the First French Empire.
Example:
Napoleon Bonaparte's legal reforms, codified in the Napoleonic Code, influenced civil law across Europe and spread revolutionary ideals.
New Markets & Trade Routes
The aggressive expansion of European commercial networks globally, leading to increased competition and economic growth in the 18th century.
Example:
The British East India Company established new markets and trade routes for spices and textiles in Asia, significantly boosting Britain's wealth.
Peace of Westphalia (1648)
A series of peace treaties signed in 1648 that ended the Thirty Years' War and established the principle of state sovereignty in Europe.
Example:
The Peace of Westphalia is often cited as the beginning of the modern international system, where states recognized each other's independent authority within their borders.
Resource Exploitation
The act of using natural resources from a region, often colonies, for economic gain, typically without regard for the long-term sustainability or local impact.
Example:
The Spanish engaged in extensive resource exploitation of silver mines in Potosí, Bolivia, which fueled their empire but devastated indigenous populations.
Romanticism
An artistic, literary, and intellectual movement originating in the late 18th century, emphasizing emotion, individualism, and the glorification of nature and the past.
Example:
Lord Byron's poetry, with its focus on intense emotion, dramatic landscapes, and heroic individualism, is a prime example of Romanticism.
Scientific Revolution
A period of rapid advancements in scientific thought and discovery from the 16th to 18th centuries, challenging traditional views of the natural world.
Example:
Nicolaus Copernicus's heliocentric model was a foundational idea of the Scientific Revolution, shifting understanding from an Earth-centered to a sun-centered universe.
Seven Years’ War
A global conflict (1756-1763) involving most of the great powers of Europe, fought on multiple continents, often considered the first true 'world war.'
Example:
Great Britain's victory in the Seven Years' War significantly expanded its colonial empire, particularly in North America and India, at the expense of France.
Steam Engine
A revolutionary engine that converted steam power into mechanical work, crucial for powering factories, trains, and ships during the Industrial Revolution.
Example:
James Watt's improved steam engine allowed textile mills to operate independently of water sources, enabling their widespread adoption across Britain.
Urbanization
The process by which populations shift from rural areas to cities, often driven by industrial growth and the availability of factory jobs.
Example:
Rapid urbanization in 19th-century Manchester led to overcrowded tenements, poor sanitation, and new public health challenges.