Glossary
Bacon
An English philosopher who championed empiricism, arguing that knowledge should be derived from observation and experimentation.
Example:
Bacon's emphasis on inductive reasoning and systematic data collection laid the groundwork for modern scientific inquiry.
Baroque
An artistic style prevalent in the 17th century, characterized by drama, emotion, grandeur, and often religious themes.
Example:
Bernini's Ecstasy of Saint Teresa is a quintessential Baroque sculpture, known for its intense emotion and theatricality.
Catherine the Great
An 18th-century empress of Russia who was a prominent example of an Enlightened Absolutist, implementing some reforms while expanding Russian territory.
Example:
Catherine the Great corresponded with Voltaire and Diderot, demonstrating her interest in Enlightenment ideas, though her reforms often served to consolidate her own power.
Copernicus
A Polish astronomer who proposed the heliocentric model, placing the sun at the center of the universe.
Example:
Copernicus's revolutionary idea that the Earth revolved around the sun challenged centuries of Ptolemaic astronomy and religious dogma.
Deductive reasoning
A logical process where a conclusion is reached by applying general principles to specific cases.
Example:
A scientist using deductive reasoning might start with a known law of physics and predict the outcome of a specific experiment based on that law.
Deism
A belief in a God who created the universe but does not intervene in its affairs, often viewing God as a "watchmaker" who set the world in motion.
Example:
Many Enlightenment thinkers embraced Deism, rejecting organized religion and miracles in favor of a rational, natural theology.
Descartes
A French philosopher and mathematician who advocated for deductive reasoning, emphasizing doubt and the power of human reason.
Example:
Descartes' famous phrase, "I think, therefore I am," highlighted the importance of individual consciousness and rational thought as a basis for knowledge.
Diderot
A French philosophe who was the chief editor of the *Encyclopedia*, a monumental work that compiled Enlightenment knowledge.
Example:
Diderot's Encyclopedia aimed to disseminate knowledge and challenge traditional authority by presenting information from a rational, secular perspective.
Empiricism
The theory that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience and observation, rather than innate ideas or tradition.
Example:
John Locke's philosophy was rooted in empiricism, suggesting that the human mind is a "tabula rasa" (blank slate) at birth, filled by experience.
Encyclopedia
A multi-volume work compiled by Diderot and other philosophes, intended to spread Enlightenment ideas and knowledge across various subjects.
Example:
The Encyclopedia became a symbol of the Enlightenment's commitment to reason and its challenge to established institutions, despite censorship efforts.
Enlightened Absolutism
A form of absolute monarchy in the 18th century where rulers adopted some Enlightenment ideals, such as religious toleration and legal reform, to strengthen their state.
Example:
Frederick the Great of Prussia practiced Enlightened Absolutism by promoting religious tolerance and reforming the legal system, while still maintaining his absolute power.
Enlightenment
An intellectual and cultural movement of the 18th century that emphasized reason, individualism, and human rights, applying scientific methods to society.
Example:
The Enlightenment inspired revolutions in America and France, as people sought to implement its ideals of liberty and equality.
Feminism (early)
The advocacy for women's rights and equality, which began to emerge during the Enlightenment, challenging traditional gender roles.
Example:
Mary Wollstonecraft, an early feminist, used Enlightenment principles of reason and individual rights to argue for women's education and political participation.
Frederick the Great
An 18th-century king of Prussia, considered a leading example of an Enlightened Absolutist, who reformed the legal system, promoted religious tolerance, and patronized the arts.
Example:
Frederick the Great saw himself as the "first servant of the state" and implemented reforms to improve the efficiency and strength of Prussia.
Galileo
An Italian astronomer and physicist who used the telescope to confirm the heliocentric model and studied motion, facing persecution from the Church.
Example:
Galileo's observations of Jupiter's moons demonstrated that not everything revolved around the Earth, further undermining the geocentric view.
General will
A concept introduced by Rousseau, representing the common good or collective interest of the community, which should guide political decisions.
Example:
In Rousseau's philosophy, laws should reflect the general will of the people, ensuring that they serve the collective good rather than private interests.
Heliocentric model
The astronomical model in which the Earth and planets revolve around the Sun at the center of the Solar System.
Example:
Galileo's telescopic observations provided crucial evidence supporting the heliocentric model, despite facing opposition from the Church.
Joseph II
An 18th-century Habsburg emperor of Austria, known for his radical and far-reaching Enlightenment-inspired reforms, including religious toleration and abolition of serfdom.
Example:
Joseph II's ambitious reforms, though well-intentioned, often met with resistance from the nobility and Church due to their rapid and comprehensive nature.
Locke
An English philosopher who articulated the concepts of natural rights (life, liberty, property) and the social contract, influencing revolutionary thought.
Example:
Locke's ideas on government by consent and the right to rebel against tyranny profoundly influenced the American Declaration of Independence.
Natural rights
Inherent rights possessed by all individuals from birth, typically identified as life, liberty, and property, which governments should protect.
Example:
The concept of natural rights was central to Enlightenment political philosophy, arguing that these rights pre-existed government and could not be legitimately taken away.
Neoclassical
An artistic and architectural style of the late 18th century, emphasizing reason, order, balance, and classical Greek and Roman themes.
Example:
Jacques-Louis David's Oath of the Horatii exemplifies Neoclassical painting with its clear lines, heroic subject matter, and moralistic tone.
Newton
An English physicist and mathematician who developed the laws of motion and universal gravitation, explaining how celestial and terrestrial objects move.
Example:
Newton's synthesis of physics and astronomy provided a comprehensive framework for understanding the natural world, influencing scientific thought for centuries.
Philosophes
French intellectuals and writers of the Enlightenment who championed reason and reform, often meeting in salons and coffeehouses.
Example:
Philosophes like Voltaire and Diderot used their writings to critique absolute monarchy, religious intolerance, and social injustices.
Popular sovereignty
The principle that the authority of a state and its government are created and sustained by the consent of its people, through their elected representatives.
Example:
The American and French Revolutions were driven by the ideal of popular sovereignty, asserting that ultimate political power resides with the people.
Reason
The application of logic and evidence to understand the world, challenging traditional beliefs and authority.
Example:
During the Enlightenment, thinkers used reason to question the divine right of kings, arguing instead for governance based on the consent of the governed.
Rousseau
A Genevan philosopher who explored ideas of the general will, popular sovereignty, and the corrupting influence of society on human nature.
Example:
Rousseau's concept of the "general will" suggested that legitimate political authority comes from the collective good of the community, not individual desires.
Scientific Method
A systematic approach to inquiry involving observation, hypothesis formation, experimentation, and analysis to gain knowledge.
Example:
The development of the Scientific Method allowed researchers to move beyond mere speculation, leading to verifiable discoveries in various fields.
Scientific Revolution
A period of rapid advancements in scientific thought and discovery from the 16th to 18th centuries, emphasizing observation and experimentation.
Example:
The Scientific Revolution fundamentally changed how Europeans understood the universe, moving from a geocentric to a heliocentric view.
Smallpox vaccination
A medical breakthrough at the end of the 18th century, providing immunity against the deadly smallpox disease.
Example:
Edward Jenner's development of the smallpox vaccination was a major public health achievement, significantly reducing mortality rates in subsequent centuries.
Social contract
An implicit agreement among members of a society to cooperate for social benefits, sacrificing some individual freedoms for state protection.
Example:
According to Locke's social contract theory, if a government fails to protect its citizens' natural rights, the people have the right to alter or abolish it.
Urbanization
The process of population shift from rural areas to cities, leading to the growth and development of urban centers.
Example:
As agricultural productivity increased in the 18th century, fewer farm laborers were needed, contributing to significant urbanization across Europe.
Voltaire
A prominent French Enlightenment writer who advocated for freedom of speech, religious toleration, and the separation of church and state.
Example:
Voltaire's satirical writings often targeted the abuses of the French monarchy and the Catholic Church, making him a powerful voice for reform.