Glossary
Alchemy
An ancient practice and philosophical tradition combining elements of chemistry, metallurgy, physics, medicine, astrology, mysticism, and art, which was gradually replaced by modern chemistry during the Scientific Revolution.
Example:
Many early scientists, including Isaac Newton, engaged in alchemy in their attempts to understand the fundamental nature of matter.
Anatomy
The branch of science concerned with the bodily structure of humans, animals, and other living organisms, especially as revealed by dissection and the separation of parts.
Example:
Early modern physicians began to perform dissections to gain a more accurate understanding of human anatomy.
Astrology
The belief that the relative positions of celestial bodies and related phenomena can influence human lives and earthly events, which was challenged by the new scientific understanding of the cosmos.
Example:
While astrology was popular for centuries, the Scientific Revolution's emphasis on observable laws of physics began to undermine its credibility.
Blood Circulation
The continuous movement of blood through the body, propelled by the heart, to deliver oxygen and nutrients and remove waste products.
Example:
William Harvey's discovery of blood circulation fundamentally changed medical understanding of the human body.
Deductive Reasoning
A logical process that starts with a general principle or premise and applies it to specific cases to reach a certain conclusion.
Example:
Knowing that 'all humans are mortal' and that 'Socrates is human,' one can use deductive reasoning to conclude that 'Socrates is mortal.'
Empirical Theory
The belief that knowledge is primarily derived from sensory experience and observation, forming the foundation of the scientific method.
Example:
A doctor relying on a patient's symptoms and test results to make a diagnosis is applying an empirical theory of medicine.
Francis Bacon
An English philosopher and statesman who formalized the empirical method and advocated for inductive reasoning, significantly influencing the development of the scientific method.
Example:
Francis Bacon argued that true knowledge comes from careful observation and experimentation, not just from ancient books.
Galileo Galilei
An Italian astronomer, physicist, and engineer who used the telescope to make groundbreaking observations supporting heliocentrism, leading to conflict with the Catholic Church.
Example:
Galileo Galilei's observations of Jupiter's moons provided strong empirical evidence for the heliocentric model.
Geocentric Theory
The ancient belief that the Earth is the center of the universe and that all celestial bodies revolve around it.
Example:
For centuries, the Catholic Church supported the geocentric theory, aligning it with theological interpretations of humanity's central place in creation.
Heliocentric Theory
The astronomical model in which the Earth and planets revolve around the Sun at the center of the Solar System.
Example:
Copernicus's heliocentric theory challenged the long-held geocentric view, placing the Sun, not Earth, at the center of the cosmos.
Humoral Theory
An ancient medical belief, prevalent before the Scientific Revolution, that the human body was composed of four basic substances (humors: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, black bile) whose balance determined health.
Example:
Under the humoral theory, a fever might be treated by bloodletting to reduce excess 'hot' blood.
Individualism
A social theory favoring freedom of action for individuals over collective or state control, which fueled intellectual shifts during the Scientific Revolution.
Example:
The emphasis on individual thought and discovery, rather than blind adherence to authority, was a hallmark of individualism during this era.
Inductive Reasoning
A logical process where specific observations or facts are used to form general conclusions or theories.
Example:
Observing that every raven you've ever seen is black and concluding that 'all ravens are black' is an example of inductive reasoning.
Isaac Newton
An English mathematician, physicist, and astronomer who developed the laws of motion and universal gravitation, synthesizing the work of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo.
Example:
Isaac Newton's 'Principia Mathematica' established the foundational principles of classical mechanics and explained why planets orbit the sun.
Johannes Kepler
A German astronomer and mathematician who formulated the three laws of planetary motion, describing the elliptical orbits of planets around the Sun.
Example:
Johannes Kepler's laws showed that planets move in ellipses, not perfect circles, a significant refinement to Copernicus's model.
Microorganisms
Microscopic organisms, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi, whose existence was discovered with the aid of the microscope.
Example:
The discovery of microorganisms revolutionized the understanding of disease and hygiene.
Microscope
An optical instrument used to see objects too small for the naked eye, whose development during the Scientific Revolution led to the discovery of microorganisms.
Example:
The invention of the microscope allowed scientists to observe tiny cells and bacteria for the first time.
Nicholas Copernicus
A Polish astronomer who proposed the heliocentric model of the universe, challenging the prevailing geocentric view.
Example:
Nicholas Copernicus's work, 'On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres,' laid the groundwork for modern astronomy.
Physiology
The branch of biology that deals with the normal functions of living organisms and their parts.
Example:
William Harvey's work on blood circulation was a major advancement in understanding human physiology.
Reason
The power of the mind to think, understand, and form judgments logically, which became a primary tool for inquiry during the Scientific Revolution.
Example:
Thinkers like Descartes championed reason as the path to certain knowledge, famously stating, 'I think, therefore I am.'
Rene Descartes
A French philosopher and mathematician who emphasized deductive reasoning and the importance of doubt in seeking truth, famously stating 'Cogito, ergo sum.'
Example:
Rene Descartes believed that by starting with clear, self-evident truths, one could logically deduce other certainties.
Scientific Method
A systematic approach to inquiry involving observation, hypothesis formulation, experimentation, and analysis to draw conclusions about the natural world.
Example:
Scientists use the scientific method to test theories, such as designing an experiment to see if a new fertilizer increases crop yield.
Scientific Revolution
A period in European history (roughly 16th-18th centuries) when new ideas and methods in science challenged traditional views, leading to fundamental shifts in understanding the natural world.
Example:
The Scientific Revolution saw a dramatic shift from relying on ancient Greek texts to conducting experiments and observations.
Telescope
An optical instrument that makes distant objects appear magnified, whose improvements by Galileo revolutionized astronomical observation.
Example:
Galileo's use of the telescope allowed him to see previously unobservable features of the moon and planets.
Three Laws of Motion
Formulated by Isaac Newton, these laws describe the relationship between a body and the forces acting upon it, and its motion in response to those forces.
Example:
Newton's Three Laws of Motion explain everything from why a ball rolls down a hill to how planets stay in orbit.
William Harvey
An English physician who was the first to describe accurately the complete circulation of blood and the properties of blood being pumped to the brain and body by the heart.
Example:
William Harvey's meticulous observations of the heart's action disproved centuries-old beliefs about how blood moved through the body.