Glossary
Absolutism
A political system in which a single ruler, typically a monarch, holds complete and unrestricted power over the state and its people.
Example:
Louis XIV of France epitomized absolutism, famously declaring 'L'état, c'est moi' (I am the state), centralizing all power in his own hands.
Adam Smith
A Scottish economist and philosopher, considered the 'father of modern economics,' known for his influential work 'The Wealth of Nations,' which advocated for free markets.
Example:
Adam Smith's arguments against mercantilism and for laissez-faire economics laid the foundation for modern capitalism.
Baron de Montesquieu
A French Enlightenment philosopher known for his articulation of the theory of separation of powers, which influenced many modern constitutions.
Example:
Baron de Montesquieu's 'The Spirit of the Laws' proposed that dividing governmental authority into legislative, executive, and judicial branches would prevent tyranny.
Coffeehouses
Public establishments that emerged in the 17th and 18th centuries, serving as centers for social interaction, news dissemination, and intellectual discussion.
Example:
London's coffeehouses became known as 'penny universities' because for the price of a cup of coffee, one could engage in lively debates and read the latest pamphlets.
Consumer Culture
A social and economic order that encourages the acquisition of goods and services in ever-increasing amounts, often driven by advertising and changing social norms.
Example:
The rise of new goods like printed fabrics and porcelain during the 18th century contributed to an emerging consumer culture among the middle classes, who sought to display their status through possessions.
Demographic Shift
A change in the characteristics of a population, such as its size, age structure, or distribution, often due to factors like birth rates, death rates, or migration.
Example:
The 18th century saw a significant demographic shift in Europe, with population growth leading to increased urbanization and pressure on resources.
Empiricism
The theory that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience, emphasizing observation and experimentation as the basis for understanding the world.
Example:
John Locke's philosophy of empiricism suggested that the human mind is a 'tabula rasa' at birth, filled only through experience and sensory input.
Enlightenment
An intellectual and cultural movement of the 18th century that emphasized reason, individualism, and skepticism, applying scientific methods to society and government.
Example:
The Enlightenment challenged the divine right of kings, advocating instead for governments based on the consent of the governed and the protection of natural rights.
Experimentation
The process of testing a hypothesis under controlled conditions to determine cause-and-effect relationships, a cornerstone of the scientific method.
Example:
Robert Boyle's careful experimentation with gases, varying pressure and volume, led to the formulation of Boyle's Law, demonstrating the power of empirical inquiry.
Free Markets
An economic system in which prices and production are determined by unrestricted competition between privately owned businesses, with minimal government intervention.
Example:
Adam Smith's 'Wealth of Nations' championed the concept of free markets, arguing that an 'invisible hand' would guide individual self-interest to benefit society as a whole.
Galileo Galilei
An Italian astronomer, physicist, and engineer who made significant contributions to the scientific method and used a telescope to make groundbreaking astronomical observations.
Example:
Galileo Galilei's discovery of Jupiter's moons provided compelling evidence against the geocentric model, showing that not everything revolved around Earth.
Geocentric View
The ancient astronomical model that placed the Earth at the center of the universe, with the Sun, Moon, and stars orbiting around it.
Example:
For centuries, the Ptolemaic geocentric view was accepted as truth, aligning with both common perception and theological interpretations of humanity's central place in creation.
Heliocentric Model
The astronomical model in which the Earth and planets revolve around the Sun at the center of the solar system.
Example:
Copernicus's proposal of the heliocentric model was revolutionary, as it directly contradicted the long-held geocentric view supported by the Church.
Isaac Newton
An English physicist and mathematician widely regarded as one of the most influential scientists of all time, known for his laws of motion and universal gravitation.
Example:
Isaac Newton's synthesis of celestial and terrestrial mechanics in his 'Principia Mathematica' provided a unified explanation for the physical world, from falling apples to orbiting planets.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
A Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer whose political philosophy influenced the progress of the Enlightenment throughout Europe, particularly his ideas on the social contract and the general will.
Example:
Jean-Jacques Rousseau's concept of the 'general will' suggested that true liberty comes from obedience to laws that citizens collectively make for the common good.
Johannes Kepler
A German astronomer and mathematician who formulated the laws of planetary motion, describing the elliptical orbits of planets around the Sun.
Example:
Johannes Kepler's meticulous calculations, based on Tycho Brahe's observational data, revealed that planets move in ellipses, not perfect circles, around the sun.
Limited Government
A political system in which the powers of the government are restricted by a constitution or laws, protecting individual rights and liberties.
Example:
John Locke's ideas heavily influenced the concept of limited government, asserting that rulers derive their authority from the consent of the governed and must protect natural rights.
Mercantilism
An economic theory prevalent from the 16th to 18th centuries that advocated for government regulation of the economy to maximize exports and accumulate wealth (especially gold and silver) for the state.
Example:
Under mercantilism, European powers established colonies to provide raw materials and serve as captive markets, ensuring a favorable balance of trade for the mother country.
Natural Religion
A form of religious belief based on reason and observation of the natural world, rather than on revelation or supernatural phenomena.
Example:
Deism, a popular belief among some Enlightenment thinkers, is a form of natural religion that posits a creator God who set the universe in motion but does not intervene in its affairs.
Observation
The act of carefully watching and recording phenomena, a fundamental method emphasized during the Scientific Revolution to gather empirical evidence.
Example:
Before the invention of the telescope, astronomers relied on naked-eye observation to chart the movements of planets, though their interpretations were often limited by geocentric assumptions.
Printing Press
A mechanical device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a print medium, enabling the mass production of printed materials.
Example:
The widespread use of the printing press allowed Enlightenment ideas to spread rapidly across Europe, making books and pamphlets accessible to a broader public.
Public Sphere
An arena in social life where individuals can come together to freely discuss and identify societal problems, and through that discussion, influence political action.
Example:
The growth of coffeehouses and salons contributed to the formation of a vibrant public sphere where citizens could engage in critical debate outside of state control.
Rationalism
The belief that reason is the primary source of knowledge and justification, often emphasizing innate ideas or logical deduction over sensory experience.
Example:
René Descartes's famous dictum, 'I think, therefore I am,' exemplifies rationalism, asserting that certainty can be found through pure thought rather than empirical observation.
Reason
The capacity for consciously making sense of things, applying logic, and adapting practices, institutions, and beliefs based on new information or existing knowledge.
Example:
Enlightenment thinkers believed that human reason could solve societal problems and lead to progress, rather than relying solely on tradition or religious dogma.
Religious Toleration
The principle of allowing people to practice their own religion and beliefs without persecution or discrimination.
Example:
Religious toleration was a key demand of Enlightenment thinkers like Voltaire, who argued that diversity of belief was beneficial for society and prevented conflict.
Renaissance
A period in European history (roughly 14th to 17th century) marked by a renewed interest in classical art, literature, and philosophy, which laid intellectual groundwork for later scientific and cultural shifts.
Example:
The artistic innovations of the Italian Renaissance, like perspective in painting, reflected a new focus on human observation and naturalistic representation.
Salons
Informal gatherings, typically hosted by aristocratic women in their homes, where Enlightenment thinkers, artists, and writers discussed new ideas.
Example:
Madame Geoffrin's salons in Paris were crucial intellectual hubs, allowing philosophers like Diderot to share and refine their ideas in a stimulating environment.
Scientific Revolution
A period from the 16th to 18th centuries when new ideas and methods in science, based on observation and experimentation, challenged traditional views of the natural world.
Example:
The Scientific Revolution fundamentally altered how Europeans understood the cosmos, moving from a static, Earth-centered model to a dynamic, sun-centered one.
Separation of Powers
A political doctrine originating in the Enlightenment that divides governmental power into distinct branches (e.g., legislative, executive, judicial) to prevent tyranny.
Example:
Montesquieu's advocacy for the separation of powers was a direct response to the dangers of absolute monarchy, aiming to create a system of checks and balances.
Skepticism
A philosophical attitude that questions the certainty of knowledge or belief, often leading to a demand for evidence or proof.
Example:
David Hume's radical skepticism led him to question the very basis of cause and effect, suggesting that our understanding is based on habit rather than absolute certainty.
Smallpox Vaccination
A medical procedure developed in the late 18th century by Edward Jenner that provided immunity against the deadly smallpox virus, significantly reducing mortality rates.
Example:
The introduction of smallpox vaccination was a monumental public health achievement, saving countless lives and demonstrating the power of scientific inquiry in medicine.
Social Contract
An implicit agreement among the members of a society to cooperate for social benefits, for example, by sacrificing some individual freedom for state protection.
Example:
Jean-Jacques Rousseau argued that a legitimate government is based on a social contract where individuals surrender some rights to the 'general will' of the community.
Spinning Jenny
A multi-spindle spinning frame, invented by James Hargreaves, that was one of the key developments in the industrialization of textile manufacturing during the early Industrial Revolution.
Example:
The spinning jenny dramatically increased the speed at which cotton could be spun into thread, revolutionizing the textile industry and leading to greater production.
Steam Engine
A heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid, a crucial invention of the Industrial Revolution that powered factories and transportation.
Example:
James Watt's improvements to the steam engine made it a highly efficient power source, enabling the construction of large factories away from water sources.
Voltaire
A French Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher famous for his advocacy of civil liberties, including freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and separation of church and state.
Example:
Voltaire's relentless critiques of religious intolerance and censorship made him a leading voice for individual freedoms during the Enlightenment.