Glossary
Absolute Monarchy
A form of government where the monarch holds supreme, unchecked power, often claiming divine right to rule.
Example:
King Louis XIV of France, famously declaring 'L'état, c'est moi' (I am the state), epitomized the concept of Absolute Monarchy.
Bourgeoisie
The middle class in France, including merchants, professionals, and manufacturers, who were often wealthy but lacked the privileges of the nobility and clergy.
Example:
Despite their economic success, the Bourgeoisie felt increasingly frustrated by their exclusion from political power and social status before the French Revolution.
Congress of Vienna
A series of meetings (1814-1815) among European powers after Napoleon's defeat, aimed at restoring the balance of power, redrawing national borders, and suppressing revolutionary movements.
Example:
The Congress of Vienna sought to re-establish the old monarchical order and prevent future French expansion, ushering in a period of relative peace but also conservative repression.
Conservative Ideology
A political philosophy that generally favors tradition, established institutions, and gradual change, often in reaction to radical movements like the French Revolution.
Example:
Edmund Burke's critiques of the French Revolution's excesses contributed significantly to the development of Conservative Ideology, emphasizing order and stability over revolutionary upheaval.
Constitutional Monarchy
A system of government where the monarch's power is limited by a constitution, which defines the rights of citizens and the powers of other government branches.
Example:
After the initial phase of the French Revolution, France briefly became a Constitutional Monarchy, with the king's authority constrained by a new legislative assembly.
De-Christianization
A policy implemented during the radical phase of the French Revolution aimed at reducing the influence of the Catholic Church and promoting a secular society.
Example:
During the De-Christianization campaign, revolutionary authorities closed churches, removed religious symbols, and even attempted to replace Christian holidays with secular festivals.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
A foundational document of the French Revolution, proclaiming universal rights such as liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression, and abolishing noble privileges.
Example:
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen asserted that all men are born free and equal in rights, fundamentally challenging the old aristocratic order.
East India Companies
Powerful chartered companies, primarily British and Dutch, that controlled vast trading monopolies and territories in Asia, acting as quasi-governmental entities.
Example:
The British East India Company effectively ruled large parts of India, collecting taxes and maintaining its own army, demonstrating its immense power beyond mere trade.
Enlightenment Ideas
Philosophical concepts from the 18th century emphasizing reason, individual rights, liberty, and the critique of traditional authority.
Example:
Thinkers like John Locke and Montesquieu, through their Enlightenment Ideas on natural rights and separation of powers, profoundly influenced revolutionary movements.
French Republic
The republican government established in France in 1792 after the abolition of the monarchy, marking a radical shift in political structure.
Example:
The First French Republic was proclaimed after the National Convention voted to depose King Louis XVI, signaling a new era of popular sovereignty.
Girondins
A moderate political faction during the French Revolution, often in opposition to the more radical Jacobins, who favored a less centralized government and avoided extreme measures.
Example:
The Girondins initially held significant power in the National Assembly but were eventually purged by the Jacobins, marking a shift towards more radical revolutionary policies.
Global Commerce
The expansion of trade networks across the world, connecting distant regions and leading to the exchange of goods, resources, and wealth.
Example:
The vast network of trade routes that brought spices from Asia to Europe and raw materials from the Americas to European factories exemplified the rise of Global Commerce in the early modern period.
Haitian Revolution
A successful slave revolt (1791-1804) in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, leading to the establishment of the independent republic of Haiti, the first free black republic.
Example:
Inspired by the ideals of the French Revolution, the Haitian Revolution demonstrated that enslaved people could successfully fight for their freedom and establish their own nation.
Jacobins
A radical political club during the French Revolution that played a key role in the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the First French Republic.
Example:
Maximilien Robespierre was a prominent leader of the Jacobins, who pushed for extreme measures to defend the revolution, leading to the Reign of Terror.
Jean Jacques Rousseau
An Enlightenment philosopher whose ideas on the 'general will,' the social contract, and the inherent goodness of humanity influenced both the French Revolution and the Romantic movement.
Example:
Jean Jacques Rousseau's concept of the 'noble savage' and his emphasis on feeling over pure reason made him a significant precursor to Romantic thought.
Methodism
A Protestant Christian movement founded by John Wesley, emphasizing personal piety, emotional religious experience, and social outreach, which experienced a revival during the Romantic era.
Example:
The rise of Methodism offered a more emotionally engaging and accessible form of worship for many, contrasting with the more formal established churches and aligning with Romantic sensibilities.
Napoleon
A French military general who seized power after the French Revolution, becoming Emperor of the French and conquering much of Europe.
Example:
Napoleon's military campaigns spread revolutionary ideals across Europe while simultaneously establishing a new authoritarian regime under his personal rule.
Nationalism
A strong sense of identity and loyalty to one's nation, often based on shared culture, language, or history, which can inspire movements for self-determination or unification.
Example:
Napoleon's conquests inadvertently fueled Nationalism in conquered territories, as people united against French occupation, leading to future independence movements.
Olympe de Gouges
A French playwright and political activist who advocated for women's rights during the French Revolution, most notably through her 'Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen'.
Example:
Olympe de Gouges courageously challenged the revolutionary government's exclusion of women from political equality, arguing that women, too, deserved the same rights as men.
Popular Sovereignty
The principle that the authority of a state and its government are created and sustained by the consent of its people, through their elected representatives.
Example:
The idea of Popular Sovereignty was central to the radical phase of the French Revolution, asserting that ultimate power resided with the citizens, not a monarch.
Reign of Terror
A period (1793-1794) during the French Revolution characterized by extreme political repression and mass executions of perceived enemies of the revolution, led by the Committee of Public Safety.
Example:
Thousands were guillotined during the Reign of Terror, as Robespierre and the Jacobins sought to eliminate all opposition and consolidate revolutionary power.
Romanticism
An artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that emerged in the late 18th century, emphasizing emotion, individualism, the glorification of nature, and the past, as a reaction against Enlightenment rationalism.
Example:
Lord Byron's passionate poetry and Eugène Delacroix's dramatic paintings, like 'Liberty Leading the People,' are iconic examples of the emotional intensity and individualism central to Romanticism.
Sovereignty
The supreme authority within a territory, allowing a state or ruler to govern independently without external interference.
Example:
Before the French Revolution, King Louis XVI claimed Sovereignty rested solely with the monarch, a concept challenged by those who believed it should reside with the people.
State Competition
Rivalry among European nations for economic dominance, colonial territories, and political influence, often leading to military conflicts.
Example:
The numerous wars fought between Britain and France in the 18th century, such as the Seven Years' War, were prime examples of intense State Competition for global power.
Toussaint Louverture
A former enslaved person who rose to become the leader of the Haitian Revolution, skillfully leading the fight for independence against French, Spanish, and British forces.
Example:
Toussaint Louverture's military and political genius was instrumental in transforming a slave uprising into a successful war for national liberation.