Glossary
Age of -Isms
A historical period, primarily the 19th century, characterized by the emergence and proliferation of various political and social ideologies, many ending with the suffix '-ism'.
Example:
The 19th century was a dynamic period in Europe, often called the Age of -Isms, as new ideas like liberalism and nationalism reshaped societies and governments.
Anarchism
A political philosophy that advocates for self-governed societies based on voluntary institutions, often rejecting the necessity of the state or any hierarchical authority.
Example:
Anarchism gained prominence in the late 19th century, with thinkers like Bakunin arguing for the complete abolition of the state to achieve true freedom.
Bourgeoisie
The middle class, typically associated with commerce, industry, and professions, who were often the primary supporters of liberalism in the 19th century.
Example:
The rising bourgeoisie in industrializing Europe sought political power to match their growing economic influence, often through liberal reforms.
Chartists
A working-class movement in Britain during the 1830s and 1840s that advocated for political reforms, most notably universal male suffrage.
Example:
The Chartists presented petitions to Parliament demanding reforms like annual parliaments and secret ballots, highlighting the working class's desire for political representation.
Clara Zetkin
A German Marxist theorist and advocate for women's rights, who played a significant role in the socialist women's movement.
Example:
Clara Zetkin organized the first International Women's Day and tirelessly worked to educate women for political involvement within the socialist framework.
Cult of Domesticity
A prevailing 19th-century ideology that defined women's roles within the home, emphasizing their piety, purity, submissiveness, and domesticity.
Example:
The Cult of Domesticity confined many middle-class women to the private sphere, limiting their public influence and educational opportunities.
Feminism
An ideology advocating for the social, political, and economic equality of the sexes, challenging traditional gender roles and seeking equal rights for women.
Example:
Early feminism in the 19th century pushed for women's right to vote and access to education, directly challenging the prevailing societal norms.
Flora Tristan
A French socialist writer and activist who advocated for both women's rights and workers' rights in the 19th century.
Example:
Flora Tristan traveled extensively, organizing labor unions and writing 'The Workers' Union,' linking the progress of women's rights to the working class.
Friedrich Engels
A German social scientist, journalist, and philosopher who co-authored 'The Communist Manifesto' with Karl Marx, developing the theory of Marxism.
Example:
Friedrich Engels's 'The Condition of the Working Class in England' provided a stark account of industrial poverty, influencing his collaboration with Marx.
Georges Sorel
A French philosopher and theorist of revolutionary syndicalism, known for his advocacy of violence and myth as tools for social change.
Example:
Georges Sorel believed that a general strike, driven by a powerful myth, was necessary to overthrow the existing order, rather than gradual political action.
Henri de Saint-Simon
A French social theorist and one of the early utopian socialists, who believed that industrial development required a new social order led by scientists and industrialists.
Example:
Henri de Saint-Simon argued that society should be organized to maximize industrial production and that workers should have control over their labor.
Jeremy Bentham
A British philosopher and social reformer, considered the founder of modern utilitarianism, which posits that actions are right if they promote the greatest good for the greatest number.
Example:
Jeremy Bentham's philosophy of utilitarianism influenced liberal thought by suggesting that laws and policies should be judged by their ability to maximize overall happiness.
John Stuart Mill
A prominent 19th-century British philosopher and economist, a leading proponent of liberalism and utilitarianism, advocating for individual liberty and women's rights.
Example:
John Stuart Mill's 'On Liberty' is a foundational text of liberalism, arguing for the importance of individual freedom and expression.
Karl Marx
A German philosopher, economist, historian, and revolutionary, whose ideas formed the basis of Marxism and communism, emphasizing class struggle and revolution.
Example:
Karl Marx's analysis of capitalism in 'Das Kapital' argued that it inherently contained contradictions that would lead to its downfall.
Liberalism
A political ideology emphasizing individual rights, limited government, popular sovereignty, and economic freedom.
Example:
Many members of the bourgeoisie supported liberalism because it championed free markets and protected property rights, aligning with their economic interests.
Marxism
A radical form of socialism developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, based on the theory of historical materialism and advocating for class struggle leading to a communist society.
Example:
Marxism posited that history was a series of class conflicts, culminating in a revolution where the proletariat would seize control from the bourgeoisie.
Mikhail Bakunin
A Russian revolutionary anarchist, considered one of the most influential figures of anarchism, advocating for the abolition of the state and private ownership.
Example:
Mikhail Bakunin famously clashed with Marx over the role of the state in a post-revolutionary society, arguing for its complete dissolution.
Nationalism
An ideology emphasizing the importance of a nation, defined by shared culture, language, or ethnicity, and advocating for its interests and sovereignty.
Example:
Nationalism was a powerful force behind the unification of Germany and Italy, as people with shared identities sought to form unified nation-states.
Proletariat
The working class, especially industrial wage-earners, who were seen by Marxists as exploited by the capitalist system and destined to lead a revolution.
Example:
Karl Marx believed that the proletariat would eventually rise up to overthrow the capitalist system and establish a classless society.
Robert Owen
A Welsh social reformer and one of the founders of utopian socialism and the cooperative movement, known for his experimental community at New Lanark.
Example:
Robert Owen demonstrated his belief in improved working conditions and education for workers at his textile mills, creating a model community.
Socialism
A political and economic theory advocating for collective or governmental ownership and administration of the means of production and distribution of goods, prioritizing equality and cooperation.
Example:
In response to the harsh conditions of industrialization, socialism gained traction among the working class, promising a more equitable distribution of wealth.
Universal Suffrage
The right to vote for all adult citizens, regardless of wealth, property, gender, or race.
Example:
The Chartist movement in Britain was a significant push for universal suffrage for men, laying groundwork for broader voting rights later on.
Utopian Socialism
An early form of socialism that sought to create ideal, cooperative communities and societies through peaceful means, rather than class struggle or revolution.
Example:
Robert Owen's New Lanark was an attempt at Utopian Socialism, aiming to improve workers' lives through better housing, education, and working conditions.