Glossary
Amygdala
Two almond-shaped clusters in the limbic system linked to emotion, particularly fear and aggression.
Example:
The sudden surge of fear you feel when startled by a loud noise is processed by your amygdala.
Amygdala
Two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system linked to emotion, particularly fear and aggression, and the formation of emotional memories.
Example:
Seeing a spider might trigger your amygdala, causing an immediate feeling of fear.
Association Areas
Regions of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions but are crucial for higher mental functions like learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.
Example:
Understanding the meaning of a complex sentence involves the integration of information by your association areas.
Brain Plasticity
The brain's remarkable ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections or strengthening existing ones in response to experience, learning, or injury.
Example:
After a stroke, a patient might regain lost functions as other parts of the brain take over, demonstrating brain plasticity.
Brainstem
The brain's foundational structure, responsible for automatic life-sustaining functions and relaying sensory and motor information.
Example:
When you're asleep, your brainstem continues to regulate your breathing and heart rate without conscious effort.
Brainstem
The oldest and innermost region of the brain, responsible for vital automatic functions necessary for survival.
Example:
The brainstem keeps you breathing and your heart beating even when you're fast asleep.
Broca's Aphasia
A language disorder resulting from damage to Broca's Area, characterized by difficulty producing fluent speech, often described as 'broken speech'.
Example:
A person with Broca's Aphasia might say 'Walk... dog... park' instead of 'I will walk the dog in the park'.
Broca's Area
An area in the left frontal lobe responsible for controlling speech production and language output.
Example:
When you articulate a sentence, your Broca's Area is coordinating the muscle movements required for speech.
Case Studies
In-depth investigations of individual patients, often those with specific brain lesions or unique conditions, providing detailed insights into brain-behavior relationships.
Example:
The study of Phineas Gage, who suffered a severe brain injury, is a famous case study that provided insights into the frontal lobe's role in personality.
Cerebellum
Located at the back of the brain, the cerebellum coordinates smooth, precise voluntary movements, maintains balance, and is involved in motor learning.
Example:
Learning to ride a bicycle and maintaining your balance relies heavily on your cerebellum.
Cerebellum
Often called the 'little brain,' it is located at the rear of the brainstem and is crucial for balance, coordination of voluntary movements, and implicit memory.
Example:
A gymnast's incredible balance and fluid movements are largely thanks to their well-developed cerebellum.
Cerebral Cortex
The outermost layer of the brain, responsible for higher-level cognitive processes such as thought, language, memory, and perception.
Example:
All your complex problem-solving and creative thinking occur within your cerebral cortex.
Cerebral Cortex
The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; it is the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.
Example:
All your complex thoughts, language, and conscious awareness originate in your cerebral cortex.
Contralateral organization
The principle that the left hemisphere of the brain controls the right side of the body, and the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body.
Example:
If you move your right hand, the motor signals originated in the left side of your brain due to contralateral organization.
Corpus Callosum
A large band of neural fibers that connects the two cerebral hemispheres, allowing them to communicate and share information.
Example:
Without the corpus callosum, the left and right sides of your brain would operate largely independently.
Corpus Callosum
A large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.
Example:
The corpus callosum allows your left brain to know what your right brain is doing, enabling coordinated thought and action.
Electroencephalography (EEG)
A non-invasive neuroimaging technique that measures electrical activity in the brain using electrodes placed on the scalp, useful for studying sleep cycles and seizures.
Example:
Researchers might use an EEG to observe the distinct brainwave patterns during different stages of sleep.
Frontal Lobe
Located at the front of the brain, this lobe is involved in higher-order cognitive processes such as planning, decision-making, voluntary movement, and emotional regulation.
Example:
Making plans for your weekend or deciding what to eat for dinner are functions of your frontal lobe.
Frontal Lobe
The largest lobe, located at the front of the brain, responsible for higher-level cognitive functions like planning, decision-making, judgment, and personality.
Example:
When you strategize for a chess game, your frontal lobe is actively engaged in problem-solving.
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
A neuroimaging technique that detects changes in blood flow to different brain regions, providing detailed images of brain activity during specific tasks.
Example:
An fMRI scan could show which parts of a student's brain are most active while they are solving a math problem.
Hemispheric Lateralization
The specialization of function in each of the two cerebral hemispheres, where certain cognitive processes are more dominant in one hemisphere than the other.
Example:
The fact that language processing is typically concentrated in the left hemisphere is an example of hemispheric lateralization.
Hippocampus
A curved structure within the limbic system crucial for the formation of new long-term memories.
Example:
If you're trying to remember what you had for breakfast yesterday, your hippocampus is actively involved.
Hippocampus
A neural center located in the limbic system that is vital for the formation of new explicit memories and spatial navigation.
Example:
If you're trying to remember what you had for breakfast yesterday, your hippocampus is hard at work.
Hypothalamus
A small but vital part of the limbic system that regulates basic drives like hunger, thirst, body temperature, and sexual behavior, and controls the pituitary gland.
Example:
Feeling hungry after a long day without food is a signal regulated by your hypothalamus.
Hypothalamus
A small but crucial structure below the thalamus that regulates basic drives like hunger, thirst, body temperature, and sexual behavior, maintaining homeostasis.
Example:
When you feel hungry, your hypothalamus is signaling your body's need for food.
Lateralization
The specialization of function in one hemisphere of the brain or the other, such as language being primarily lateralized to the left hemisphere.
Example:
The fact that most people's language abilities are concentrated in the left hemisphere is an example of lateralization.
Left Hemisphere
One of the two halves of the cerebral cortex, typically specializing in language, logic, and analytical tasks.
Example:
Solving a complex math problem or writing an essay heavily utilizes your left hemisphere.
Limbic System
A group of interconnected brain structures (including the thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala) involved in emotion, motivation, memory, and hormone regulation.
Example:
Experiencing strong emotions like fear or joy, and forming new memories, are functions of the limbic system.
Limbic System
A collection of brain structures involved in emotion, motivation, memory, and learning.
Example:
Experiencing strong feelings of joy or sadness activates various parts of your limbic system.
Medulla Oblongata
A part of the brainstem that controls vital involuntary functions such as heartbeat, breathing, and blood pressure.
Example:
Damage to the medulla oblongata can be life-threatening because it directly impacts essential bodily functions.
Medulla Oblongata
The lowest part of the brainstem, controlling essential life-sustaining functions such as heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure.
Example:
Damage to the medulla oblongata can be life-threatening because it controls your most basic bodily functions.
Midbrain
The uppermost part of the brainstem, involved in vision, hearing, motor control, sleep/wake cycles, arousal, and temperature regulation.
Example:
Your midbrain helps you quickly orient your head towards a sudden loud noise.
Midbrain
A part of the brainstem that helps regulate movement, process auditory and visual information, and control reflexes.
Example:
Your midbrain helps you quickly turn your head when you hear a sudden loud noise.
Occipital Lobe
Located at the back of the brain, this lobe is primarily responsible for processing visual information, including color, shape, depth, and motion.
Example:
When you see the vibrant colors of a sunset, your occipital lobe is actively interpreting that visual data.
Occipital Lobe
Located at the back of the head, this lobe is primarily responsible for processing visual information.
Example:
When you see the vibrant colors of a sunset, your occipital lobe is interpreting that visual data.
Optogenetics
A cutting-edge research technique that uses light to control the activity of genetically modified neurons, allowing precise study of neural circuits.
Example:
Scientists might use optogenetics to turn specific neurons on or off in a mouse's brain to observe their role in memory formation.
Parietal Lobe
Located at the top and rear of the brain, this lobe processes sensory information related to touch, pressure, temperature, and pain, and is involved in spatial awareness.
Example:
Feeling the texture of a rough surface or knowing where your hand is in space relies on your parietal lobe.
Parietal Lobe
Located at the top and rear of the head, this lobe processes sensory information related to touch, temperature, pain, and body position.
Example:
Feeling the texture of a rough sweater is processed by your parietal lobe.
Pituitary Gland
Often called the 'master gland,' it is controlled by the hypothalamus and secretes hormones that regulate growth and control other endocrine glands.
Example:
The pituitary gland releases hormones that tell your thyroid gland to produce its own hormones.
Pons
Located in the brainstem, the pons helps coordinate movement, regulate sleep, and serves as a bridge for information between the cerebellum and cerebral cortex.
Example:
The pons plays a role in the vivid dreams you experience during REM sleep.
Pons
Located in the brainstem, the pons acts as a bridge connecting the brainstem to the cerebellum and is involved in sleep, respiration, swallowing, and facial sensations.
Example:
The pons plays a role in coordinating the movements of your eyes while you read this sentence.
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
A neuroimaging technique that uses radioactive tracers to visualize brain metabolism and neurotransmitter activity, showing which brain areas are most active.
Example:
A PET scan might be used to observe glucose consumption in different brain regions, indicating their level of activity during a cognitive task.
Reticular Activating System (RAS)
A network of neurons in the brainstem that modulates arousal, attention, and consciousness by filtering sensory information.
Example:
The Reticular Activating System allows you to focus on your teacher's voice in a noisy classroom by filtering out irrelevant sounds.
Right Hemisphere
One of the two halves of the cerebral cortex, typically specializing in spatial, nonverbal, and holistic information processing.
Example:
Recognizing faces or appreciating a piece of music primarily involves your right hemisphere.
Split Brain
A condition resulting from surgery that severs the corpus callosum, isolating the two hemispheres and leading to independent functioning.
Example:
A patient with a split brain might be able to draw an object seen in their left visual field with their left hand but be unable to verbally name it.
Split-brain research
Studies conducted on patients whose corpus callosum has been severed, revealing the specialized functions of the brain's two hemispheres.
Example:
Split-brain research has shown that a patient might be able to draw a picture with their left hand (controlled by the right hemisphere) but not verbally describe it (left hemisphere language center).
Temporal Lobe
Located on the sides of the brain, this lobe processes auditory information, aids in language comprehension, and is involved in memory formation and emotion.
Example:
Understanding the words of your favorite song and remembering its lyrics involves your temporal lobe.
Temporal Lobe
Located above the ears, this lobe processes auditory information, is involved in memory formation, and plays a role in language comprehension.
Example:
Listening to your favorite song primarily activates your temporal lobe.
Thalamus
A part of the limbic system that acts as the brain's sensory relay station, directing incoming sensory information (except smell) to appropriate cortical areas.
Example:
When you touch a hot stove, the sensory information first passes through your thalamus before reaching the parietal lobe.
Thalamus
A sensory relay station located on top of the brainstem that directs all sensory information (except smell) to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex for processing.
Example:
When you touch a hot stove, your thalamus quickly sends that pain signal to the correct part of your brain for interpretation.
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
A non-invasive brain stimulation technique that uses magnetic fields to temporarily disrupt or stimulate neural activity in specific brain regions, allowing researchers to study their function.
Example:
Researchers might use TMS to temporarily disable a specific brain area to see how it affects a person's ability to recognize faces.
Wernicke's Aphasia
A language disorder resulting from damage to Wernicke's Area, characterized by difficulty understanding language and producing coherent speech, often referred to as 'word salad'.
Example:
Someone with Wernicke's Aphasia might speak fluently but use nonsensical words, making their speech difficult to understand.
Wernicke's Area
An area in the left temporal lobe crucial for language comprehension and understanding spoken and written words.
Example:
If you are listening to a lecture, your Wernicke's Area is working to make sense of the words being spoken.