Glossary
Acquisition
In classical conditioning, the initial stage where the neutral stimulus is linked to the unconditioned stimulus, beginning the learning process.
Example:
The first few times a dog hears a bell just before receiving food, it is in the acquisition phase of learning to salivate to the bell.
Albert Bandura
A prominent psychologist known for his work on observational learning, particularly the Bobo doll experiment.
Example:
Albert Bandura's research showed that children could learn aggressive behaviors simply by watching adults act aggressively towards a doll.
Attention
In observational learning, the process of focusing on the model's behavior and its consequences.
Example:
For a student to learn a new dance move, they must first pay close attention to the instructor's movements.
Classical Conditioning
A type of learning where an organism learns to associate two stimuli, leading to a new, learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.
Example:
Every time a specific song plays, you feel a sudden craving for the pizza you always ate while listening to it; this association is a result of classical conditioning.
Cognitive Map
A mental representation of the layout of one's environment.
Example:
When you can mentally navigate your way from your home to a friend's house without looking at a map, you are using your cognitive map.
Conditioned Response (CR)
In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (now conditioned) stimulus.
Example:
If the sound of a dentist's drill now makes you feel anxious, that anxiety is a conditioned response.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
In classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.
Example:
After repeatedly hearing a specific song before a scary movie scene, the song itself becomes a conditioned stimulus that makes you feel anxious.
Edward Lee Thorndike
A psychologist whose research on animal intelligence led to the formulation of the Law of Effect, a foundational principle of operant conditioning.
Example:
The idea that a cat will repeat actions that lead to escaping a puzzle box and getting food, but stop actions that don't, stems from Edward Lee Thorndike's Law of Effect.
Edward Tolman
A cognitive psychologist who introduced concepts like latent learning and cognitive maps, challenging strict behaviorist views.
Example:
Rats navigating a maze even without immediate rewards, demonstrating they had formed a mental representation of the maze, supported Edward Tolman's theory of latent learning.
Extinction
In classical conditioning, the weakening of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.
Example:
If a dog that was conditioned to salivate to a bell no longer receives food after the bell, its salivation response will eventually undergo extinction.
Fixed Interval (FI) Schedule
An operant conditioning reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
Example:
Receiving a paycheck every two weeks is an example of a fixed interval schedule, as reinforcement (money) comes after a set period of time.
Fixed Ratio (FR) Schedule
An operant conditioning reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
Example:
A coffee shop offers a free drink after every 10 purchases, operating on a fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement.
Insight Learning
A sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem, often described as an 'aha!' moment.
Example:
After struggling with a complex math problem for hours, you suddenly see the solution clearly, experiencing an insight learning moment.
Ivan Pavlov
A Russian physiologist who pioneered the study of classical conditioning through his experiments with dogs and salivation.
Example:
The famous experiment where dogs learned to salivate at the sound of a bell, even without food, was conducted by Ivan Pavlov.
John B. Watson
A behaviorist who demonstrated that fears could be classically conditioned in humans through his controversial Little Albert experiment.
Example:
The experiment where a baby was conditioned to fear a white rat, and subsequently generalized that fear to other furry objects, was conducted by John B. Watson.
John Garcia
A psychologist known for his research on biological constraints on conditioning, particularly taste aversion.
Example:
The phenomenon where you quickly develop an aversion to a specific food after getting sick from it, even hours later, is an example of the Garcia Effect, named after John Garcia.
Latent Learning
Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
Example:
A student might learn the layout of their campus by walking around, but this latent learning only becomes evident when they need to find a specific building quickly.
Law of Effect
Thorndike's principle stating that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.
Example:
A cat quickly learns to press a lever to escape a puzzle box because pressing the lever leads to the desirable outcome of freedom and food, illustrating the Law of Effect.
Learning
A relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior or mental processes due to experience.
Example:
After repeatedly touching a hot stove, a child learns to avoid it, demonstrating a change in behavior due to experience, which is a form of learning.
Model
In observational learning, the individual whose behavior is observed and imitated by others.
Example:
When a child learns to ride a bike by watching their parent, the parent serves as the model.
Motivation
In observational learning, the desire or incentive to imitate the observed behavior.
Example:
A child might have the ability to imitate a superhero's pose, but they will only do so if they have the motivation to be like the hero.
Negative Punishment
Decreasing behaviors by withdrawing a desirable stimulus after a response.
Example:
A teenager's phone is taken away for breaking curfew, which is negative punishment because a desirable item is removed to decrease future curfew violations.
Negative Reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by removing an undesirable stimulus after a response.
Example:
You fasten your seatbelt to stop the annoying beeping sound in your car, which is an example of negative reinforcement because it removes an unpleasant stimulus.
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that initially elicits no specific response other than perhaps focusing attention.
Example:
Before any training, the sound of a specific ringtone is a neutral stimulus that doesn't make you feel anxious.
Observational Learning
Learning by observing others and then imitating or modeling their behavior.
Example:
A younger sibling learns to tie their shoes by watching their older sibling perform the task, which is an example of observational learning.
Operant Conditioning
A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.
Example:
A dog learns to sit on command because it consistently receives a treat for doing so, illustrating operant conditioning.
Positive Punishment
Decreasing behaviors by administering an undesirable stimulus after a response.
Example:
A driver receives a speeding ticket, which is positive punishment because an undesirable stimulus (the ticket) is added to decrease speeding.
Positive Reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by presenting a desirable stimulus after a response.
Example:
A student receives a sticker for completing their homework, which makes them more likely to complete future assignments; this is positive reinforcement.
Punishment
In operant conditioning, any event that decreases the likelihood of a behavior recurring.
Example:
A parent scolding a child for hitting their sibling is a form of punishment intended to reduce the hitting behavior.
Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows, making it more likely to occur again.
Example:
Giving a child praise for cleaning their room is a form of reinforcement aimed at increasing the likelihood of them cleaning again.
Reproduction
In observational learning, the ability to physically perform the observed behavior.
Example:
A basketball player practicing a new shot they saw a professional execute is engaging in the reproduction phase of observational learning.
Retention
In observational learning, the ability to remember the observed behavior over time.
Example:
After watching a cooking show, being able to recall the steps for a recipe later demonstrates retention of the observed information.
Robert Rescorla
A psychologist known for his contingency model of classical conditioning, emphasizing the predictability of the association between stimuli.
Example:
Robert Rescorla's work suggested that conditioning is more effective when the conditioned stimulus reliably predicts the unconditioned stimulus, not just when they are paired.
Spontaneous Recovery
In classical conditioning, the reappearance of a weakened conditioned response after a pause, following extinction.
Example:
After a period of not hearing the bell, a dog might suddenly salivate again to its sound, demonstrating spontaneous recovery of the conditioned response.
Stimulus Discrimination
In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
Example:
A dog trained to salivate only to a specific tone, and not to other similar sounds, is demonstrating stimulus discrimination.
Stimulus Generalization
In classical conditioning, the tendency for the conditioned response to be elicited by stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.
Example:
A child who was bitten by a small dog and now fears all dogs, regardless of size or breed, is experiencing stimulus generalization.
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus.
Example:
When a loud noise makes you jump, the act of jumping is an unconditioned response to the startling sound.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers an unconditioned response without any prior learning.
Example:
The smell of your favorite food naturally making your mouth water is because the food's aroma acts as an unconditioned stimulus.
Variable Interval (VI) Schedule
An operant conditioning reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.
Example:
Checking your email for a reply is often reinforced on a variable interval schedule, as you don't know exactly when a new message will arrive.
Variable Ratio (VR) Schedule
An operant conditioning reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
Example:
Playing a slot machine is an example of a variable ratio schedule, as the payout comes after an unpredictable number of plays.