Glossary
Atkinson-Shiffrin Model
A classic model of memory that proposes three stages of memory: sensory, short-term, and long-term memory, through which information flows sequentially.
Example:
Understanding how a phone number moves from being heard to being remembered for a short time, then potentially stored long-term, is explained by the Atkinson-Shiffrin Model.
Chunking
A memory strategy that involves organizing individual pieces of information into larger, more meaningful units or 'chunks' to increase the capacity of short-term memory.
Example:
Instead of remembering 10 individual digits, remembering them as two phone numbers (e.g., 555-1234 and 555-5678) is an example of chunking.
Concept
A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people that helps us simplify and organize the world.
Example:
Your concept of 'fruit' includes apples, bananas, and oranges, even though they look different.
Echoic Memory
A type of sensory memory that stores auditory information for a slightly longer duration than iconic memory, typically 3-4 seconds.
Example:
When someone asks 'What did I just say?' and you can replay their last few words in your mind, you are using your echoic memory.
Eidetic Memory
Often referred to as 'photographic memory,' it is a rare ability to recall images, sounds, or objects with extreme accuracy and vividness after only a brief exposure.
Example:
Someone with eidetic memory might be able to perfectly recall every detail on a page they've only seen for a few seconds.
Encoding
The initial process of transforming sensory information into a form that can be stored in memory. It's the first step in memory formation.
Example:
When you study for a test, you are encoding the information into your brain.
Episodic Memory
A subcategory of explicit memory that stores personally experienced events, including the time and place they occurred, forming a mental 'episode' of your life.
Example:
Remembering your high school graduation ceremony or your last birthday party are examples of episodic memory.
Explicit Memory (Declarative Memory)
A type of long-term memory that involves conscious, intentional recollection of factual information, previous experiences, and concepts.
Example:
Recalling the capital of France or remembering what you had for breakfast this morning are examples of explicit memory.
Hierarchies
An organizational structure for memories where broad concepts are divided into narrower, more specific categories, aiding in efficient retrieval.
Example:
Mentally organizing animals into mammals, birds, reptiles, and then further into specific species like dogs, cats, eagles, and snakes, uses hierarchies.
Hippocampus
A brain structure located in the limbic system that plays a crucial role in the formation of new explicit memories.
Example:
Damage to the hippocampus can lead to anterograde amnesia, where a person cannot form new long-term memories.
Iconic Memory
A type of sensory memory that stores visual information for a very brief duration, usually less than one second.
Example:
If you quickly glance at a picture and then close your eyes, the brief afterimage you 'see' is due to iconic memory.
Implicit Memory (Non-Declarative Memory)
A type of long-term memory that influences behavior without conscious awareness or intentional recollection, often related to skills and habits.
Example:
Being able to ride a bicycle without consciously thinking about the steps involved is an example of implicit memory.
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
A memory system with a virtually unlimited capacity that stores information for extended periods, from minutes to a lifetime.
Example:
Your memories of childhood, your first day of school, or how to ride a bicycle are all stored in your long-term memory.
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
A persistent strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity, leading to a long-lasting increase in signal transmission between neurons; it is considered a neural basis for learning and memory.
Example:
When you repeatedly practice a skill, the neural pathways involved become stronger through long-term potentiation, making the skill easier to perform.
Memory
The cognitive process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved over time. It is a complex system involving various stages and types.
Example:
Remembering your best friend's birthday party from last year involves your brain's memory system.
Mnemonic Devices
Memory aids that use vivid imagery or organizational strategies, often by associating new information with existing knowledge, to improve encoding and retrieval.
Example:
Using the acronym 'ROY G BIV' to remember the colors of the rainbow is a classic mnemonic device.
Procedural Memory
A subcategory of implicit memory that stores information about how to perform various motor skills, habits, and procedures.
Example:
The ability to tie your shoelaces or play a musical instrument without conscious thought relies on procedural memory.
Prototype
The best or most typical example of a particular category or concept, often used as a mental benchmark for comparison.
Example:
For most people, a robin is a prototype of a bird, rather than a penguin or an ostrich.
Rehearsal
The conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in short-term memory or to encode it into long-term memory.
Example:
Repeating a new vocabulary word over and over to yourself to remember its definition is a form of rehearsal.
Retrieval
The process of accessing and bringing stored information back into conscious awareness. It's how we recall memories.
Example:
When you try to remember the name of a song, you are engaging in the retrieval process.
Schemas
Mental frameworks or cognitive structures that help organize and interpret information, influencing what we notice and remember.
Example:
Your schema for a 'classroom' might include desks, a whiteboard, and a teacher, influencing how you perceive and remember a new classroom.
Semantic Memory
A subcategory of explicit memory that stores general knowledge, facts, concepts, and ideas independent of personal experience.
Example:
Knowing that Paris is the capital of France or that a dog is a mammal are examples of semantic memory.
Sensory Memory
The shortest-term element of memory, which holds sensory information for a very brief period, typically less than a few seconds.
Example:
The fleeting image you see after a camera flash goes off is an example of sensory memory.
Short-Term Memory (STM)
A memory system that holds a limited amount of information (about 7 +/- 2 items) for a brief period, typically around 20-30 seconds, unless actively rehearsed.
Example:
Remembering a phone number just long enough to dial it before you forget it is a function of short-term memory.
Storage
The process of maintaining encoded information in memory over time. This can range from brief moments to a lifetime.
Example:
After learning a new language, the ability to speak it years later demonstrates effective storage of that linguistic information.