Glossary
Accommodation
The process of modifying existing schemas or creating new ones to incorporate new information that doesn't fit into existing frameworks.
Example:
When the child learns that the four-legged animal they called a 'dog' is actually a 'cat' and creates a new category for cats, they are demonstrating Accommodation.
Adolescence
The transitional period from childhood to adulthood, typically beginning with puberty and ending with independence, marked by significant physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes.
Example:
The years between middle school and college, often characterized by identity exploration and increased independence, represent Adolescence.
Albert Bandura
A psychologist known for his social learning theory, emphasizing the importance of observational learning and modeling.
Example:
The Bobo doll experiment, which demonstrated that children learn aggressive behaviors by watching adults, was conducted by Albert Bandura.
Assimilation
The process of incorporating new experiences into existing schemas without changing the schema itself.
Example:
When a child sees a cat for the first time and calls it a 'dog' because it has four legs, they are using Assimilation.
Attachment
A deep and enduring emotional bond that connects one person to another across time and space.
Example:
The strong emotional connection a baby forms with its primary caregiver is known as Attachment.
Authoritarian Parenting
A parenting style characterized by strict rules, high demands, and little warmth or responsiveness, often leading to children who are obedient but may have lower self-esteem.
Example:
A parent who tells their child, 'My house, my rules, no questions asked!' and expects unquestioning obedience is demonstrating Authoritarian Parenting.
Authoritative Parenting
A parenting style characterized by clear rules and high expectations combined with warmth, responsiveness, and open communication, often leading to well-adjusted children.
Example:
A parent who sets a curfew but discusses the reasons for it with their teenager and listens to their perspective is using an Authoritative Parenting style.
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
A developmental disorder characterized by difficulties with social interaction and communication, and by restricted or repetitive patterns of thought and behavior.
Example:
A child who struggles to make eye contact, has difficulty understanding social cues, and engages in repetitive behaviors might be diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).
Carol Gilligan
A psychologist who criticized Kohlberg's theory of moral development for its potential gender bias, proposing that women's moral reasoning often emphasizes care and relationships.
Example:
Carol Gilligan argued that Kohlberg's stages might not fully capture the moral development of females, who often prioritize an 'ethic of care' over abstract justice.
Conception
The moment when a sperm fertilizes an egg, marking the beginning of prenatal development.
Example:
The journey of human development officially begins at Conception, when genetic material from two parents combines.
Concrete Operational Stage
Piaget's third stage (about 7 to 11 years) where children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events and understand conservation.
Example:
A child who understands that the amount of juice remains the same even when poured into a different shaped glass is in the Concrete Operational Stage.
Conservation
The principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms or appearances of objects.
Example:
Understanding that a flattened ball of clay still has the same amount of clay as when it was round is an example of Conservation.
Continuity vs. Stages
A debate about whether development is a gradual, continuous process (like a ramp) or occurs in distinct, sequential stages (like a staircase).
Example:
Some theories suggest that cognitive development is a smooth, gradual increase in abilities (Continuity), while others, like Piaget's, propose clear, separate Stages.
Conventional Morality
Kohlberg's second stage of moral reasoning, where decisions are based on upholding laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order.
Example:
A teenager following traffic laws strictly because it's the law and what good citizens do is demonstrating Conventional Morality.
Critical Period
A specific time in development when certain skills or abilities are most easily learned or when certain events must occur for normal development to proceed.
Example:
The first few years of life are considered a Critical Period for language acquisition; if a child is not exposed to language during this time, they may never fully develop linguistic abilities.
Cross-Sectional Studies
A research method that compares different age groups at a single point in time to observe differences in a particular variable.
Example:
To quickly compare the reading comprehension of 10-year-olds, 20-year-olds, and 30-year-olds, a researcher would use a Cross-Sectional Study.
Developmental Psychology
The scientific study of how humans change physically, mentally, and socially throughout their lifespan, from conception to death.
Example:
A researcher studying how language skills develop from infancy through childhood is working in the field of Developmental Psychology.
Diana Baumrind
A clinical and developmental psychologist known for her research on parenting styles and their effects on child development.
Example:
Diana Baumrind's work identified and described the authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive parenting styles.
Egocentrism
In Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view.
Example:
A young child covering their eyes and believing that if they can't see you, you can't see them, is demonstrating Egocentrism.
Embryo
The developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month, during which major organs and body systems begin to form.
Example:
During the Embryo stage, the heart begins to beat and tiny limb buds appear.
Erik Erikson
A developmental psychologist who proposed a theory of psychosocial development, outlining eight stages of life, each with a unique crisis.
Example:
According to Erik Erikson, the primary challenge for adolescents is to develop a sense of identity.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
Physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking, often including a small head and facial abnormalities.
Example:
A child born with distinctive facial features, intellectual disabilities, and behavioral problems might be diagnosed with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) due to prenatal alcohol exposure.
Fetus
The developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth, characterized by significant growth and refinement of body structures.
Example:
By the time it reaches the Fetus stage, the developing baby can kick and respond to sounds.
Fixation
In Freudian theory, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, where conflicts were unresolved.
Example:
An adult who bites their nails excessively might be experiencing an oral Fixation, according to Freudian theory.
Formal Operational Stage
Piaget's fourth and final stage (about 12 years and up) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts and hypothetical situations.
Example:
A teenager debating philosophical ideas or considering different possible outcomes for a future career is demonstrating thinking characteristic of the Formal Operational Stage.
G. Stanley Hall
An American psychologist often considered the founder of developmental psychology, known for his concept of adolescence as a period of 'storm and stress'.
Example:
G. Stanley Hall's view of adolescence highlighted it as a turbulent time of emotional upheaval and conflict.
Harry Harlow
A psychologist known for his research on attachment in rhesus monkeys, demonstrating the importance of contact comfort over nourishment.
Example:
Harry Harlow's experiments with wire and cloth 'mothers' showed that baby monkeys preferred the comforting cloth mother, even if the wire mother provided food.
Imprinting
A rapid and irreversible learning process that occurs during a critical period in the life of some animals, leading to a strong attachment to the first moving object they see.
Example:
A newly hatched duckling following the first human it sees, believing that person is its mother, demonstrates Imprinting.
Infantile Amnesia
The common inability of adults to retrieve episodic memories from early childhood, typically before the age of two to four years.
Example:
Most adults cannot recall specific events from their first birthday party, illustrating the phenomenon of Infantile Amnesia.
Insecure Attachment
Attachment patterns characterized by anxiety or avoidance, where a child may be less likely to explore, show distress upon separation, or be difficult to comfort upon reunion.
Example:
A child who either clings excessively to their parent and is inconsolable when they leave, or completely ignores their parent upon return, might be displaying Insecure Attachment.
Intersex
A general term used for a variety of conditions in which a person is born with reproductive or sexual anatomy that doesn't fit the typical definitions of female or male.
Example:
An individual born with ambiguous genitalia or a combination of male and female internal reproductive organs would be described as Intersex.
Jean Piaget
A Swiss psychologist renowned for his theory of cognitive development, proposing distinct stages of intellectual growth in children.
Example:
The concepts of schemas, assimilation, and accommodation are central to Jean Piaget's theory of how children construct their understanding of the world.
Konrad Lorenz
An ethologist famous for his studies on imprinting in geese, highlighting the concept of critical periods in early development.
Example:
Konrad Lorenz observed that goslings would follow him as if he were their mother if he was the first moving object they saw after hatching.
Later Adulthood
The period of life typically beginning in the mid-60s and extending until death, often marked by physical and cognitive changes, retirement, and reflection.
Example:
Grandparenting, managing health changes, and reflecting on life's accomplishments are common experiences in Later Adulthood.
Lawrence Kohlberg
A psychologist known for his theory of moral development, which describes three levels of moral reasoning: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional.
Example:
The Heinz dilemma is a classic scenario used by Lawrence Kohlberg to assess an individual's stage of moral reasoning.
Lev Vygotsky
A Soviet psychologist who developed the sociocultural theory of cognitive development, emphasizing the role of social interaction and culture.
Example:
The concepts of the Zone of Proximal Development and scaffolding are key contributions from Lev Vygotsky's work.
Longitudinal Studies
A research method that involves observing and testing the same group of individuals repeatedly over an extended period of time.
Example:
To understand how vocabulary grows from age 5 to 25, a researcher might conduct a Longitudinal Study, testing the same children every few years.
Mary Ainsworth
A developmental psychologist known for her 'Strange Situation' experiment, which identified different attachment styles in infants.
Example:
Through her 'Strange Situation' procedure, Mary Ainsworth was able to categorize infants into secure, anxious-ambivalent, and avoidant attachment styles.
Maturation
Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.
Example:
A baby's ability to sit up, then crawl, and then walk, in a predictable sequence, is an example of Maturation.
Menopause
The natural cessation of menstruation in women, typically occurring around age 50, marking the end of reproductive capacity.
Example:
A woman experiencing hot flashes and the end of her menstrual cycle is likely going through Menopause.
Middle Adulthood
The period of life typically spanning from the 40s to the mid-60s, often characterized by career peak, family changes, and a re-evaluation of life goals.
Example:
Many individuals experience a 'midlife crisis' or a renewed sense of purpose during Middle Adulthood.
Modeling
The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior, a key concept in Albert Bandura's social learning theory.
Example:
A child learning to tie their shoes by watching their parent perform the task is an example of Modeling.
More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)
In Vygotsky's theory, someone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, providing guidance within the ZPD.
Example:
A teacher, parent, or even a more experienced peer acting as a mentor to a student is considered a More Knowledgeable Other (MKO).
Motor Development
The progression of a child's ability to use their body, including gross motor skills (large movements) and fine motor skills (small, precise movements).
Example:
Learning to roll over, then crawl, and eventually walk are key milestones in a baby's Motor Development.
Nature vs. Nurture
A fundamental debate in psychology concerning the relative importance of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental influences (nurture) in shaping human development.
Example:
The question of whether a child's intelligence is primarily due to their parents' genes or their upbringing and education is an example of the Nature vs. Nurture debate.
Object Permanence
The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.
Example:
A baby who searches for a toy that has been hidden under a blanket demonstrates an understanding of Object Permanence.
Permissive Parenting
A parenting style characterized by high warmth but low demands and few rules, often resulting in children who may struggle with self-control and responsibility.
Example:
A parent who rarely sets limits, lets their child eat whatever they want, and avoids confrontation is exhibiting Permissive Parenting.
Placenta
A temporary organ that develops in the uterus during pregnancy, providing oxygen and nutrients to the growing baby and removing waste products.
Example:
The Placenta acts as a vital bridge between the mother and the developing baby, filtering substances and facilitating exchange.
Postconventional Morality
Kohlberg's third and highest stage of moral reasoning, where decisions are based on abstract ethical principles and universal human rights, even if they conflict with laws.
Example:
An activist protesting an unjust law, believing it violates fundamental human rights, is acting based on Postconventional Morality.
Preconventional Morality
Kohlberg's first stage of moral reasoning, where decisions are based on self-interest, avoiding punishment, or gaining concrete rewards.
Example:
A child deciding not to steal a cookie because they fear getting a timeout is operating at the Preconventional Morality level.
Preoperational Stage
Piaget's second stage (about 2 to 7 years) characterized by symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and a lack of conservation.
Example:
A preschooler engaging in imaginative play, like pretending a stick is a sword, is in the Preoperational Stage.
Primary Sex Characteristics
The body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible.
Example:
The development of the testes in males and ovaries in females are examples of Primary Sex Characteristics.
Pruning
The process by which unused neural connections in the brain are eliminated, allowing for more efficient processing and strengthening of frequently used connections.
Example:
During childhood, the brain undergoes significant Pruning, getting rid of unnecessary neural pathways to become more specialized and efficient.
Psychosexual Stages
Sigmund Freud's theory proposing five stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital), each focusing on a different erogenous zone and associated with specific conflicts.
Example:
According to Freud, a person who is excessively neat and orderly might have experienced a Fixation during the anal Psychosexual Stage.
Psychosocial Stages of Development
Erik Erikson's theory proposing eight stages of development, each characterized by a unique psychosocial crisis that must be resolved for healthy personality development.
Example:
A young adult struggling to form close relationships might be facing the 'Intimacy vs. Isolation' crisis, one of Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development.
Scaffolding
A teaching method where a more knowledgeable individual provides temporary support and guidance to a learner, gradually withdrawing help as the learner becomes more competent.
Example:
A parent helping a child learn to ride a bike by holding the seat and then gradually letting go is an example of Scaffolding.
Schemas
Mental frameworks or concepts that help individuals organize and interpret information about the world.
Example:
A child's understanding that all four-legged animals are 'dogs' is an initial Schema for animals.
Secondary Sex Characteristics
Non-reproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair, that develop during puberty.
Example:
The deepening of a male's voice or the growth of breasts in a female are examples of Secondary Sex Characteristics.
Secure Attachment
An attachment style characterized by a child's confidence in their caregiver's availability and responsiveness, leading them to explore freely and be easily comforted upon reunion.
Example:
A toddler who explores a new playroom confidently but returns to their parent for comfort when a stranger enters, and is easily soothed when the parent returns after a brief absence, shows Secure Attachment.
Sensorimotor Stage
Piaget's first stage (birth to about 2 years) during which infants learn about the world through their senses and motor activities, developing object permanence.
Example:
A baby shaking a rattle to hear the sound it makes is exploring their world in the Sensorimotor Stage.
Sex Chromosomes
The pair of chromosomes (XX for female, XY for male) that determine an individual's biological sex.
Example:
The presence of an X and a Y Sex Chromosome typically results in a biologically male individual.
Sexual Orientation
An enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attraction to men, women, or both sexes.
Example:
A person's consistent attraction to individuals of the same gender defines their Sexual Orientation as homosexual.
Sigmund Freud
An Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, known for his theory of psychosexual development and the influence of unconscious drives.
Example:
The idea that early childhood experiences and unresolved conflicts can lead to adult personality traits stems from Sigmund Freud's theories.
Social Clock
The culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.
Example:
Feeling pressure to get married and have children by a certain age reflects the influence of the Social Clock in one's culture.
Socialization
The lifelong process by which individuals learn the norms, values, behaviors, and social skills appropriate to their society.
Example:
Learning to share toys, say 'please' and 'thank you,' and understand classroom rules are all part of a child's Socialization process.
Stability vs. Change
A debate regarding whether an individual's personality traits and characteristics remain consistent over time (stability) or undergo significant transformations (change) throughout their life.
Example:
A person wondering if their introverted personality will remain the same throughout adulthood or if they might become more outgoing is considering the Stability vs. Change aspect of development.
Stranger Anxiety
The fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age.
Example:
A baby crying and clinging to their parent when an unfamiliar person approaches them is showing Stranger Anxiety.
Teratogens
Agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.
Example:
Alcohol, certain drugs, and some environmental pollutants are examples of Teratogens that can negatively impact a developing baby.
Theory of Mind
The ability to attribute mental states—beliefs, intents, desires, emotions, knowledge—to oneself and to others and to understand that others' mental states may differ from one's own.
Example:
A child understanding that their friend might be sad because their toy broke, even if the child themselves isn't sad, shows developing Theory of Mind.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Vygotsky's concept describing the range of tasks that a child can perform with the help of a more skilled individual, but cannot yet perform independently.
Example:
A child who can solve a puzzle with a few hints from an adult, but not by themselves, is working within their Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).
Zygote
The fertilized egg, which enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo.
Example:
After fertilization, the single-celled organism is called a Zygote before it starts dividing rapidly.