Glossary
Bystander Effect
The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other people are present.
Example:
If someone collapses in a crowded public square, the bystander effect suggests that each individual is less likely to call for help, assuming someone else will intervene.
Deindividuation
A psychological state in which an individual loses self-awareness and self-restraint when in a group setting, often leading to uninhibited behavior.
Example:
During a large, anonymous online forum discussion, some users might engage in aggressive or offensive comments due to deindividuation, feeling less accountable for their actions.
Group Polarization
The strengthening of a group's prevailing attitudes through discussion within the group, leading to more extreme positions.
Example:
After discussing climate change with like-minded peers, a group of environmental activists might experience group polarization, becoming even more convinced of the urgency and radical solutions needed.
Ingroup
A social group to which a person psychologically identifies as being a member.
Example:
For a high school student, their close circle of friends who share similar interests would be considered their ingroup.
Ingroup Bias
The tendency to favor one's own group (the ingroup) over other groups (the outgroup).
Example:
Fans of a particular sports team often exhibit ingroup bias, believing their team is inherently superior and more deserving of victory than any rival team.
Mirror-Image Perceptions
Reciprocal views often held by conflicting parties, where each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and the other side as evil and aggressive.
Example:
During a heated debate between two political factions, each side often develops mirror-image perceptions, viewing their own arguments as logical and just, while seeing the opposing arguments as irrational and malicious.
Outgroup
A social group with which an individual does not identify.
Example:
To a member of a specific fan club, anyone who is not part of that club, especially rival fans, would be considered an outgroup.
Prisoner's Dilemma
A classic game theory scenario illustrating a social trap, where two individuals acting in their own self-interest do not produce the optimal outcome.
Example:
In a scenario where two friends are caught for a minor offense, the Prisoner's Dilemma shows how confessing (betraying the other) might seem like the best individual strategy, even though remaining silent (cooperating) would lead to a better outcome for both.
Reciprocity Norm
A social expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.
Example:
After a classmate helps you study for a difficult exam, the reciprocity norm suggests you would feel obligated to help them in return if they needed assistance with a project.
Social Exchange Theory
The theory that human interactions are transactions that aim to maximize one's rewards and minimize one's costs.
Example:
Before deciding whether to volunteer for a charity event, a person might unconsciously apply social exchange theory, weighing the time and effort (costs) against the feeling of satisfaction and recognition (benefits).
Social Facilitation
The phenomenon where the presence of others enhances performance on simple or well-learned tasks.
Example:
A skilled musician might experience social facilitation, playing a familiar song even better when performing in front of a large, appreciative audience.
Social Inhibition
The phenomenon where the presence of others hinders performance on complex or unfamiliar tasks.
Example:
A student trying to solve a difficult math problem might experience social inhibition, struggling more when a teacher is observing them closely.
Social Loafing
The tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group compared to working individually.
Example:
During a group presentation, one student might engage in social loafing by letting others do most of the research and slide creation, contributing minimally themselves.
Social Traps
Situations in which conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.
Example:
Overfishing in international waters is a classic social trap, where individual fishing companies maximize their catch for short-term gain, ultimately depleting fish stocks for everyone.
Superordinate Goals
Shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation to achieve.
Example:
When two rival school clubs are forced to collaborate on a large fundraising event that benefits both, the shared objective becomes a superordinate goal, encouraging them to set aside their differences and work together.