Glossary
Appointments (Presidential)
The President's power to nominate individuals to high-level positions in the federal government, including Cabinet members, ambassadors, and federal judges, subject to Senate confirmation.
Example:
The President's appointments to the Supreme Court are among the most significant, as these justices serve for life and shape legal interpretation for decades.
Article I, Section 8
The section of the U.S. Constitution that enumerates the specific powers granted to Congress, such as the power to tax, declare war, and regulate commerce.
Example:
When Congress passes a law to regulate interstate trade, it is exercising a power explicitly granted to it under Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution.
Baker v. Carr (1962)
A Supreme Court case that established the 'one person, one vote' principle for legislative redistricting and allowed federal courts to hear cases challenging redistricting plans.
Example:
Before Baker v. Carr, some rural districts had disproportionately more voting power than urban ones; this ruling paved the way for more equitable representation based on population.
Bicameral Legislature
A legislative body composed of two chambers or houses, such as the U.S. Congress with its House of Representatives and Senate.
Example:
The U.S. Congress is a bicameral legislature, meaning a bill must pass through both the House and the Senate to become law.
Bully Pulpit
The President's unique ability to use the prestige and visibility of the office to advocate for a policy agenda and influence public opinion.
Example:
When the President uses a televised address to rally public support for a new healthcare bill, they are utilizing the bully pulpit.
Bureaucracy
The complex system of departments, agencies, and offices within the executive branch responsible for implementing government policy and administering laws.
Example:
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is part of the federal bureaucracy, tasked with enforcing environmental laws and regulations.
Checks and Balances
A system where each branch of government has the ability to limit the powers of the other branches, preventing any single branch from becoming too dominant.
Example:
When Congress overrides a presidential veto, it's an example of checks and balances in action, demonstrating the legislative branch's power over the executive.
Civil Service
The system of hiring and promoting government employees based on merit and professional qualifications, rather than political patronage or the spoils system.
Example:
A person applying for a job at the Department of Education must go through the civil service process, which involves competitive exams and qualifications, not political connections.
Cloture
A procedure in the Senate requiring 60 votes to end a filibuster and bring a bill or other measure to a vote.
Example:
To overcome a filibuster on a critical piece of legislation, the Senate majority must gather enough votes to invoke cloture.
Commander-in-Chief
The President's role as the supreme commander of the U.S. armed forces, responsible for military strategy and operations.
Example:
As Commander-in-Chief, the President can deploy troops to respond to international crises, even though Congress retains the power to declare war.
Committee System
The organizational structure within Congress where specialized groups of legislators consider, debate, and refine bills related to specific policy areas.
Example:
Most bills introduced in Congress die in the committee system, as committees act as gatekeepers, deciding which legislation moves forward.
Conference Committee
A temporary joint committee of House and Senate members formed to reconcile differences between House and Senate versions of a bill before it can be sent to the President.
Example:
After the House and Senate pass different versions of a healthcare reform bill, a conference committee is formed to negotiate a single, unified version.
Constitutional Powers
Specific authorities granted to each branch of the U.S. government as outlined in the Constitution, alongside informal powers developed through practice.
Example:
The President's formal power to nominate Supreme Court justices is a constitutional power, but their informal ability to influence public opinion through social media is not explicitly written.
Delegate Model
A model of representation where elected officials act as direct agents of their constituents, voting according to the expressed wishes of the people they represent.
Example:
A representative following the delegate model would vote against a tax increase if their constituents overwhelmingly oppose it, even if they personally believe it's beneficial.
Discretionary Authority
The power of bureaucratic agencies to make choices and decisions on how to implement laws, often by creating specific rules and regulations.
Example:
When Congress passes a broad environmental law, the EPA uses its discretionary authority to write detailed regulations on pollution limits and enforcement procedures.
Divided Government
A situation in which one party controls the presidency while another party controls one or both houses of Congress.
Example:
When a Democratic president faces a Republican-controlled House of Representatives, the U.S. experiences divided government, often leading to legislative challenges.
Executive Agreements
International agreements entered into by the President with foreign heads of state without the need for Senate ratification, often used to bypass the treaty process.
Example:
The President might enter into an executive agreement with another country to facilitate trade, avoiding the lengthy Senate approval process required for a formal treaty.
Executive Orders
Directives issued by the President that manage operations of the federal government and have the force of law, without requiring Congressional approval.
Example:
A President might issue an executive order to establish a new federal holiday or to change immigration policy, directly impacting government agencies.
Federalist 51
An essay by James Madison arguing for the necessity of checks and balances and separation of powers within the government to prevent tyranny.
Example:
Federalist 51 explains why 'ambition must be made to counteract ambition,' advocating for a government structure where branches can limit each other.
Federalist 70
An essay by Alexander Hamilton advocating for a strong, unitary executive (a single president) to ensure accountability and decisive action in government.
Example:
Hamilton's arguments in Federalist 70 are often cited to defend the need for a president who can respond quickly to crises, rather than a multi-person executive.
Federalist 78
An essay by Alexander Hamilton arguing for judicial independence and the power of judicial review, emphasizing that judges should serve life terms.
Example:
The concept of federal judges serving until retirement or death, as discussed in Federalist 78, aims to insulate them from political pressures.
Filibusters
A tactic used in the Senate by a minority of senators to delay or block a vote on a bill or other measure by extending debate indefinitely.
Example:
A senator might launch a filibuster by continuously speaking on the Senate floor, preventing a vote on a bill they oppose.
Gerrymandering
The manipulative practice of drawing electoral district boundaries to give one political party an unfair advantage over another, or to dilute the voting power of a particular group.
Example:
A district shaped like a winding snake, connecting disparate neighborhoods, is often a sign of gerrymandering designed to pack opposing voters into one area.
Government Corporations
Government agencies that operate like private businesses, providing services that could be provided by the private sector but are often deemed essential or unprofitable for private enterprise.
Example:
The U.S. Postal Service (USPS) is a government corporation that provides mail delivery services, similar to a private company but owned by the government.
Gridlock
A situation in which the inability to compromise between political parties or branches of government leads to a stalemate and prevents legislative action.
Example:
During periods of divided government, gridlock can occur, making it difficult for major legislation, like budget bills, to pass.
House of Representatives
The lower chamber of the U.S. Congress, with 435 members whose representation is based on state population and who serve two-year terms.
Example:
A state with a large population like California has many representatives in the House of Representatives, reflecting its greater number of citizens.
Independent Regulatory Agencies
Federal agencies created by Congress to regulate specific sectors of the economy, operating largely independently of presidential control.
Example:
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC), which regulates broadcasting and telecommunications, is an example of an independent regulatory agency.
Iron Triangles
A mutually beneficial, three-way relationship between a Congressional committee, a bureaucratic agency, and an interest group, working together to achieve shared policy goals.
Example:
An iron triangle might form between the Veterans Affairs Committee, the Department of Veterans Affairs, and a veterans' advocacy group, all collaborating on veterans' benefits legislation.
Issue Networks
Complex and open relationships among a wide range of actors, including interest groups, congressional staff, bureaucratic agencies, academics, and media, who are all interested in a particular policy area.
Example:
Debates over climate change policy involve an issue network that includes environmental groups, energy companies, scientists, relevant congressional committees, and various government agencies.
Judicial Activism
A judicial philosophy where judges are willing to use their power to strike down laws or reverse public policy, often to protect or expand rights, even if not explicitly stated in the Constitution.
Example:
A court engaging in judicial activism might rule to expand privacy rights, even if the Constitution doesn't explicitly mention such rights, based on evolving societal norms.
Judicial Restraint
A judicial philosophy encouraging judges to limit the exercise of their own power, deferring to the legislative and executive branches and strictly interpreting the Constitution.
Example:
A judge practicing judicial restraint might hesitate to overturn a law, even if they personally disagree with it, believing that policy-making is primarily the role of elected officials.
Judicial Review
The power of the courts to determine whether acts of the legislative and executive branches are consistent with the U.S. Constitution.
Example:
If Congress passes a law that restricts free speech, the Supreme Court can use its power of judicial review to declare that law unconstitutional.
Majority Leader (Senate)
The most powerful position in the Senate, responsible for scheduling legislation, influencing committee assignments, and guiding the majority party's agenda.
Example:
The Majority Leader in the Senate plays a crucial role in determining which bills are debated and when, effectively controlling the chamber's legislative flow.
Majority and Minority Leaders & Whips
Key leadership positions in both the House and Senate responsible for guiding their respective parties' legislative strategies and ensuring party discipline.
Example:
The Majority Leader works to rally party members to vote on key legislation, while the whips ensure members are present for votes and vote according to party lines.
Marbury v. Madison (1803)
A foundational Supreme Court case that established the principle of judicial review, allowing courts to declare acts of the legislative and executive branches unconstitutional.
Example:
The power of the Supreme Court to strike down a law passed by Congress, as seen in later cases, directly stems from the precedent set by Marbury v. Madison.
Politico Model
A model of representation that combines elements of both the delegate and trustee models, where representatives act as delegates on issues important to their constituents and as trustees on less salient issues.
Example:
A member of Congress might act as a politico by voting strictly according to constituent wishes on a local environmental issue, but using their own judgment on a complex foreign policy matter.
Pork Barrel Legislation
Legislation that provides tangible benefits, such as funding for local projects or programs, to a legislator's district or state, often to gain political support.
Example:
A bill that includes funding for a new bridge in a specific congressional district, even if it's not nationally critical, is often referred to as pork barrel legislation.
Power of the Purse
The constitutional power of Congress to control government spending and taxation, giving it significant influence over other branches and policy.
Example:
Congress can use its power of the purse to defund a presidential initiative it disagrees with, effectively halting its implementation.
President Pro Tempore
A high-ranking senator of the majority party who presides over the Senate in the absence of the Vice President.
Example:
When the Vice President is traveling, the President Pro Tempore steps in to oversee Senate proceedings, though their role is largely ceremonial.
Presidential Action
The President's options regarding a bill passed by Congress: signing it into law, vetoing it, or allowing it to become law without a signature, including a pocket veto.
Example:
If Congress sends a bill to the President and then adjourns within ten days, the President can perform a pocket veto by simply not signing it.
Redistricting
The process of redrawing electoral district boundaries within a state, typically done every ten years after the U.S. Census to reflect population changes.
Example:
After the latest census, a state might undergo redistricting to ensure that each congressional district has roughly the same number of people.
Senate
The upper chamber of the U.S. Congress, consisting of 100 members, with two from each state, who serve six-year terms.
Example:
Regardless of its size, every state, from Wyoming to Texas, has two senators in the Senate, ensuring equal state representation.
Shaw v. Reno (1993)
A landmark Supreme Court case that ruled racial gerrymandering, the drawing of legislative districts to separate voters by race, is unconstitutional.
Example:
After Shaw v. Reno, states must ensure that district lines are not drawn predominantly based on race, even if the intent is to create a majority-minority district.
Speaker of the House
The presiding officer of the U.S. House of Representatives, typically the leader of the majority party, who controls the legislative agenda and debate.
Example:
The Speaker of the House has significant influence over which bills are brought to a vote and can assign members to various committees.
Stare Decisis
The legal principle that courts should follow precedent, meaning they should adhere to previous judicial decisions when deciding similar cases.
Example:
When a court cites a ruling from a past case to justify its decision in a current case, it is applying the principle of stare decisis.
Treaties
Formal agreements between the United States and foreign countries, negotiated by the President but requiring a two-thirds vote of the Senate for ratification.
Example:
A major arms control treaty negotiated by the President would need the approval of the Senate before it could officially take effect.
Trustee Model
A model of representation where elected officials are entrusted by their constituents to use their own judgment and expertise to make decisions for the public good.
Example:
A senator adhering to the trustee model might vote for a complex trade agreement they believe is best for the nation, even if some constituents express reservations.
War Powers Act
A federal law intended to limit the President's power to commit the U.S. to armed conflict without the consent of Congress, requiring notification and approval for troop deployments.
Example:
The War Powers Act requires the President to notify Congress within 48 hours of deploying troops and limits their deployment to 60 days without Congressional authorization.