Glossary
14th Amendment
A post-Civil War amendment that grants citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S. and guarantees equal protection of the laws and due process.
Example:
The 14th Amendment was central to the Supreme Court's reasoning in Brown v. Board of Education, declaring that segregated schools violated equal protection.
Affirmative Action
Policies designed to address past and present discrimination by giving preferential treatment to historically disadvantaged groups, particularly in employment and education.
Example:
A university's policy to consider an applicant's racial or ethnic background as one factor among many in admissions is an example of affirmative action.
Background
An individual's life experiences, cultural heritage, and social circumstances that shape their perspective and identity.
Example:
A judge's personal background might influence their understanding of certain social issues, though they must rule impartially.
Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
A landmark Supreme Court case that ruled state-sponsored segregation in public schools was unconstitutional.
Example:
The decision in Brown v. Board of Education directly challenged the 'separate but equal' doctrine, leading to the desegregation of schools across the nation.
Civil Liberties
Individual rights protected by law from unjust governmental or other interference, typically found in the Bill of Rights.
Example:
Freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and the right to a fair trial are fundamental civil liberties guaranteed to individuals.
Civil Rights
The rights of citizens to political and social freedom and equality, protected by law from discrimination.
Example:
The right to vote, the right to equal employment opportunities, and the right to public accommodations without discrimination are all examples of civil rights.
Equal Protection Clause
A clause in the 14th Amendment that prohibits states from denying any person within their jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.
Example:
The Equal Protection Clause was the primary constitutional basis for striking down discriminatory laws in cases like Loving v. Virginia.
Gerrymandering
The practice of drawing electoral district boundaries to give one political party or group an unfair advantage over another.
Example:
When a state legislature draws a congressional district in a highly contorted shape to dilute the voting power of a specific demographic, it is engaging in gerrymandering.
Grutter v. Bollinger (2003)
A Supreme Court case that upheld the constitutionality of affirmative action in college admissions, allowing race to be one factor among many, but prohibiting quotas.
Example:
Universities considering an applicant's diverse experiences as part of a holistic review process are operating within the framework established by Grutter v. Bollinger.
Identity
The unique characteristics, beliefs, and affiliations that define an individual or group.
Example:
For many, their cultural identity is deeply tied to their language, traditions, and community.
Loving v. Virginia (1967)
A Supreme Court case that struck down laws banning interracial marriage as a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment.
Example:
The ruling in Loving v. Virginia affirmed the fundamental right to marry, regardless of race, and ended discriminatory marriage laws.
Majority Rights
Protections for the larger group in a society, ensuring their interests are also considered in governance.
Example:
The ability of the majority of voters to elect their preferred representatives reflects the exercise of majority rights.
Minority Rights
Protections for smaller groups (ethnic, religious, etc.) to ensure their interests are not overridden by the majority.
Example:
The right of a small religious community to practice their faith freely, even if it differs from the majority, is an example of minority rights.
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
A Supreme Court case that established the 'separate but equal' doctrine, legalizing racial segregation under the Fourteenth Amendment.
Example:
The Plessy v. Ferguson decision provided the legal justification for Jim Crow laws and widespread segregation for nearly six decades.
Principle
A fundamental belief or rule that serves as a foundation for a system of belief or behavior.
Example:
The idea of 'one person, one vote' is a core principle of democratic elections.
Protection
The act of keeping people safe from harm, discrimination, or the infringement of their rights, often a key role of government.
Example:
Laws against hate speech aim to provide protection for vulnerable groups from targeted harassment.
R. v. Big M Drug Mart Ltd. (1985)
A Canadian Supreme Court case that ruled a law requiring businesses to close on Sundays violated religious freedom.
Example:
The R. v. Big M Drug Mart Ltd. case illustrates how different countries interpret and protect religious freedom under their respective constitutions.
Reconciliation
The process of resolving conflicts or disagreements, often by finding common ground or restoring friendly relations.
Example:
After a contentious debate over a new city ordinance, community leaders worked towards reconciliation by holding town halls to address concerns from all sides.
Reitman v. Mulkey (1967)
A Supreme Court case that ruled California's Proposition 14, which repealed fair housing laws, was unconstitutional because it encouraged discrimination.
Example:
The Reitman v. Mulkey decision reinforced the principle that states cannot enact policies that promote or enable racial discrimination in housing.
Respect
Recognizing the worth, dignity, and rights of all individuals, regardless of their background or identity.
Example:
Ensuring that all students feel valued and heard in a classroom demonstrates respect for diverse perspectives.
Separate but Equal
A legal doctrine established by Plessy v. Ferguson that allowed racial segregation as long as the segregated facilities were ostensibly equal in quality.
Example:
Under the separate but equal doctrine, segregated schools for Black and white students were deemed constitutional, despite often being vastly unequal in practice.
Shaw v. Reno (1993)
A Supreme Court case that ruled that congressional districts cannot be drawn solely based on race, even if the intent is to create majority-minority districts.
Example:
The ruling in Shaw v. Reno established that bizarrely shaped districts, suggestive of racial gerrymandering, could be challenged under the Equal Protection Clause.
Trade-off
A compromise where one thing is given up in order to gain another, often involving balancing competing interests.
Example:
When a city decides to build a new park, there might be a trade-off between preserving natural habitats and creating recreational spaces.
United States v. Korematsu (1944)
A Supreme Court case that upheld the constitutionality of the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II, citing wartime necessity.
Example:
United States v. Korematsu is often cited as a cautionary tale about the government's potential overreach and violation of civil liberties during times of crisis.