Glossary
Campaign finance law
Regulations governing the raising and spending of money in political campaigns. These laws aim to prevent corruption and ensure transparency in elections.
Example:
After a major scandal involving undisclosed donations, Congress passed a new campaign finance law to limit individual contributions and require more public disclosure.
Campaign fundraising
The process by which political candidates and parties solicit and collect money to finance their election campaigns.
Example:
A candidate might spend hours on the phone each day engaging in campaign fundraising, calling potential donors to secure the financial resources needed for advertising and rallies.
Candidate-centered elections
Elections where the focus is primarily on the individual candidate's qualities, personality, and policy positions, rather than on their political party affiliation.
Example:
In a candidate-centered election, voters might choose a moderate Republican over a staunch Democrat because they admire the individual's leadership style, even if they don't align perfectly with the Republican platform.
Caucus
A meeting of members of a political party to select candidates or decide on policy. It is a method used in some states to choose delegates for national conventions.
Example:
Instead of a primary election, Iowa holds a caucus where registered party members gather in local meetings to discuss candidates and publicly declare their preferences.
Close primary
A type of primary election in which only voters registered with a particular political party can vote in that party's primary.
Example:
If you're a registered Independent in a state with a close primary, you won't be able to vote in either the Democratic or Republican primary election.
Elections
The formal process by which citizens choose their representatives and leaders through voting. They are a fundamental mechanism for democratic governance.
Example:
Every four years, the United States holds presidential elections, allowing citizens to directly choose who will lead the executive branch.
Electoral College
A system established by the U.S. Constitution for electing the President and Vice President. Electors are chosen by each state, and their votes formally elect the president.
Example:
Despite winning the popular vote, a presidential candidate can lose the election if they do not secure enough votes in the Electoral College, as seen in several past U.S. elections.
Free-rider problem
A situation where individuals benefit from a public good or service without contributing to its cost. In politics, it refers to people who benefit from interest group advocacy without joining or supporting the group.
Example:
A student who doesn't join the campus environmental club but still benefits from their successful lobbying for more recycling bins is an example of the free-rider problem.
Gender gap
Observable differences in political attitudes, voting behavior, and party identification between men and women. It often refers to women tending to vote more for Democratic candidates.
Example:
Polls often reveal a significant gender gap in support for certain social policies, with women generally favoring more government intervention in areas like healthcare and education.
Horse race journalism
Media coverage of political campaigns that focuses primarily on who is winning or losing, strategy, and polling data, rather than on substantive policy issues or candidate qualifications.
Example:
During the presidential campaign, much of the news coverage devolved into horse race journalism, constantly reporting on poll numbers and campaign gaffes instead of discussing the candidates' detailed economic plans.
Ideological movements
Groups of people who share a common set of beliefs and values about how society should be organized and governed, and who work to advance those ideas politically.
Example:
The conservative movement of the 1980s, advocating for lower taxes and reduced government spending, is a prime example of an ideological movement that significantly shaped American politics.
Incumbency advantage
The electoral benefit enjoyed by candidates who are currently holding political office, often due to name recognition, access to resources, and a proven track record.
Example:
Despite a strong challenger, the long-serving senator won re-election easily, largely due to the significant incumbency advantage that allowed him to raise more money and connect with constituents through official events.
Interest groups
Organizations of people who share common interests and actively work to influence government policy on specific issues. They advocate for their members' concerns.
Example:
The National Rifle Association (NRA) is a powerful interest group that lobbies lawmakers and mobilizes its members to protect gun rights.
Iron triangles
A strong, mutually beneficial relationship between an interest group, a congressional committee, and a bureaucratic agency, often leading to policy that serves their shared interests.
Example:
The close ties between defense contractors (interest group), the House Armed Services Committee (congressional committee), and the Department of Defense (bureaucratic agency) exemplify an iron triangle that influences military spending.
Issue networks
Loose and informal relationships among a large number of actors—including interest groups, congressional staff, university researchers, and media personnel—who are all interested in a particular policy area.
Example:
Unlike the stable iron triangle, the complex web of environmental activists, EPA scientists, and congressional aides discussing climate change policy represents an issue network.
Linkage institutions
Structures within a society that connect the people to the government or centralized authority. They allow citizens to express preferences and influence policy decisions.
Example:
Political parties, interest groups, the media, and elections are the four primary linkage institutions that bridge the gap between citizens and their government.
Media
Various forms of communication, such as television, radio, newspapers, and the internet, that provide information and shape public opinion.
Example:
The nightly news broadcast and online news sites are part of the media that informs citizens about current events and political developments.
Media partisanship
The tendency of news outlets to present information in a way that favors a particular political party or ideology, often reflecting the views of their audience or ownership.
Example:
Critics argue that some cable news channels exhibit strong media partisanship, consistently framing stories to support one political party while criticizing the other.
National convention
A large meeting held by a political party, typically every four years, to formally nominate its presidential and vice-presidential candidates and to adopt a party platform.
Example:
During the national convention, delegates from all states gather to officially select their party's nominee and celebrate their unity before the general election campaign begins.
Open primary
A type of primary election in which voters are not required to declare party affiliation and can choose to vote in any party's primary election.
Example:
In an open primary state, a registered Democrat could choose to vote in the Republican primary if they wished, potentially influencing the outcome for the opposing party.
Party identification
A citizen's self-proclaimed preference for one party or the other. It is a strong predictor of voting behavior.
Example:
Despite occasionally voting for candidates from other parties, a voter's strong sense of party identification with the Democratic Party means they consistently see themselves as a Democrat.
Party platform
A formal set of principal goals which are supported by a political party or individual candidate, used to appeal to the general public for the ultimate purpose of garnering the general public's support and votes.
Example:
The Republican party platform typically includes planks advocating for lower taxes, less government regulation, and a strong national defense.
Party-line voting
The practice of voting for every candidate on a ballot from a single political party. It reflects strong party loyalty.
Example:
In an era of increasing political polarization, many voters engage in party-line voting, simply selecting all candidates from their preferred party without much consideration for individual races.
Political action committees (PACs)
Organizations that raise and spend money to elect or defeat candidates. They represent business, labor, or ideological interests.
Example:
A large corporation might establish a Political Action Committee (PAC) to contribute funds to the campaigns of congressional candidates who support business-friendly policies.
Political efficacy
The belief that one's political participation really matters—that one's vote can actually make a difference or that one can influence government.
Example:
A student who volunteers for a local campaign and sees their efforts contribute to a candidate's victory is likely to develop a strong sense of political efficacy.
Political parties
Groups of people who organize to win elections, operate the government, and determine public policy. They are a primary linkage institution.
Example:
The Democratic and Republican political parties dominate the American electoral landscape, competing for control of Congress and the presidency.
Professional consultants
Experts hired by political campaigns to manage various aspects, such as polling, media strategy, fundraising, and voter outreach.
Example:
Modern campaigns heavily rely on professional consultants who specialize in crafting compelling advertisements and analyzing voter data to target specific demographics.
Proportional voting
An electoral system in which parties gain seats in proportion to the number of votes cast for them. This contrasts with winner-take-all systems.
Example:
In countries with proportional voting, a party that wins 20% of the national vote would typically receive roughly 20% of the seats in the legislature, ensuring broader representation.
Prospective voting
Voting based on predictions of how a party or candidate will perform in the future, considering their promises and proposed policies.
Example:
A voter who supports a candidate because they believe the candidate's new economic plan will create jobs is engaging in prospective voting.
Rational-choice voting
Voting based on what a citizen perceives to be in their own best interest, weighing the costs and benefits of different candidates or policies.
Example:
A small business owner who votes for the candidate promising tax cuts, believing it will directly benefit their company, is demonstrating rational-choice voting.
Regional realignments
Significant and lasting shifts in the geographic distribution of party support, often occurring after critical elections or major social changes.
Example:
The shift of the 'Solid South' from reliably Democratic to predominantly Republican after the Civil Rights Movement is a classic example of a regional realignment.
Retrospective voting
Voting based on a candidate's or party's past performance in office. Voters look back at what has happened under their leadership.
Example:
If a voter decides to support the incumbent president because the economy has been strong during their term, they are engaging in retrospective voting.
Single-issue groups
Interest groups that focus their efforts on advocating for or against a single, specific policy issue, often with intense dedication.
Example:
Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) is a prominent single-issue group dedicated solely to preventing drunk driving and supporting victims.
Suffrage
The right to vote in political elections. It has been expanded over time in the United States to include more groups.
Example:
The 19th Amendment granted women the right to suffrage, significantly expanding the electorate.
Swing state
A state where the outcome of a presidential or other statewide election is not consistently predictable, and either major party candidate has a realistic chance of winning.
Example:
Florida is often considered a crucial swing state in presidential elections, as its large number of electoral votes can determine the overall winner.
Third-party agendas
The policy goals and platforms of political parties other than the two dominant parties (Democratic and Republican) in a two-party system.
Example:
The Green Party's third-party agenda often includes strong environmental protection policies and universal healthcare, even if they rarely win national elections.
Voter registration
The process by which citizens sign up with election officials to become eligible to vote in their jurisdiction.
Example:
To cast a ballot in the upcoming election, citizens must complete voter registration by a specific deadline, often several weeks before Election Day.
Voting incentives
Factors or policies designed to encourage citizens to participate in elections, such as same-day registration or early voting options.
Example:
Offering paid time off for voting or providing free transportation to polling places could be considered voting incentives aimed at boosting turnout.
Voting penalties
Factors or policies that discourage or make it more difficult for citizens to participate in elections, such as strict voter ID laws or long lines at polling places.
Example:
Requiring specific forms of photo identification that many citizens may not possess can act as a voting penalty, disproportionately affecting certain demographic groups.
Winner-take-all voting
An electoral system in which the candidate who wins the most votes in a given district or state wins all of the seats or electoral votes for that area.
Example:
In the U.S. presidential election, most states use winner-take-all voting, meaning the candidate who wins the popular vote in that state receives all of its electoral votes, regardless of the margin of victory.