Glossary
Aztec Empire
A powerful Mesoamerican civilization located in present-day Mexico, known for its advanced agriculture, complex social structure, and extensive tribute system, which was conquered by Hernán Cortés.
Example:
The fall of the Aztec Empire to the Spanish, despite its vast size and military strength, highlighted the devastating impact of European diseases and superior weaponry.
Bartolome de las Casas
A Spanish Dominican friar and historian who became an early advocate for the rights of indigenous peoples in the Americas, condemning the abuses of the Encomienda System.
Example:
Bartolome de las Casas famously debated Juan de Sepulveda, arguing against the brutal treatment and enslavement of Native Americans.
Capitalism
An economic system characterized by private or corporate ownership of capital goods, by investments that are determined by private decision, and by prices, production, and the distribution of goods that are determined mainly by competition in a free market.
Example:
The wealth generated from the Americas, combined with the rise of joint-stock companies, helped fuel the transition from feudalism to early forms of capitalism in Europe.
Caravel
A small, highly maneuverable sailing ship developed by the Portuguese in the 15th century, known for its speed and ability to sail against the wind, crucial for long-distance exploration.
Example:
The invention of the caravel allowed European explorers to venture further into the open ocean, making voyages like Columbus's possible.
Caste Systems
Rigid social hierarchies developed by the Spanish in their American colonies, based on racial purity and lineage, which determined an individual's status, rights, and opportunities.
Example:
The Spanish caste systems placed peninsulares (born in Spain) at the top, followed by criollos (Spanish descent born in Americas), and then various mixed-race and indigenous groups.
Chattel Slavery
A system of forced labor where individuals are treated as personal property (chattel) that can be bought, sold, and inherited, primarily applied to enslaved Africans in the Americas.
Example:
The shift from the Encomienda System to chattel slavery of Africans was driven by the high demand for labor in the Americas and the devastating decline of Native American populations.
Columbian Exchange
The widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, diseases, and ideas between the Old World (Europe, Africa, Asia) and the New World (the Americas) in the 15th and 16th centuries.
Example:
The Columbian Exchange introduced potatoes and corn to Europe, leading to significant population growth, while horses and cattle transformed life in the Americas.
Columbus's Voyage (1492)
The expedition led by Christopher Columbus, funded by Spain, that inadvertently landed in the Americas while seeking a westward sea route to Asia.
Example:
The unexpected discovery during Columbus's Voyage (1492) ignited a massive wave of European exploration and colonization in the 'New World'.
Compass
A navigational instrument that shows direction relative to the geographic cardinal directions, significantly aiding European explorers in charting unknown waters.
Example:
Along with the astrolabe, the compass was a vital technological advancement that enabled more accurate and efficient transatlantic voyages.
Conquistadors
Spanish conquerors and explorers who led expeditions to the Americas, often using military force to subjugate indigenous populations and claim vast territories for Spain.
Example:
Figures like Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro were notorious conquistadors who brought down powerful empires in their quest for gold and glory.
Disease
European diseases, such as smallpox, influenza, and measles, to which Native Americans had no immunity, causing catastrophic population decline upon contact with Europeans.
Example:
The rapid spread of disease was arguably the most devastating weapon in the European conquest of the Americas, wiping out entire indigenous communities.
Encomienda System
A labor system implemented by the Spanish crown in the Americas, granting Spanish colonists control over Native American labor and tribute in exchange for Christianizing them.
Example:
Under the Encomienda System, Spanish landowners forced Native Americans to work in mines and on plantations, leading to widespread exploitation and abuse.
Feudalism
A medieval European social and economic system based on land ownership and loyalty, where lords granted land to vassals in exchange for military service and labor.
Example:
European exploration and colonization contributed to the decline of feudalism as new trade routes and economic opportunities emerged.
God, Gold, and Glory
A common mnemonic representing the primary motivations for European exploration and colonization: spreading Christianity, acquiring wealth, and achieving fame or national prestige.
Example:
The pursuit of God, Gold, and Glory drove many European explorers to risk perilous voyages across the Atlantic, fundamentally reshaping global history.
Inca Empire
The largest empire in pre-Columbian America, located in the Andes Mountains of South America, renowned for its sophisticated road system, architecture, and centralized government, conquered by Francisco Pizarro.
Example:
The conquest of the Inca Empire by Pizarro secured immense silver wealth for Spain, fundamentally altering global economic patterns.
Jamestown (1607)
The first permanent English settlement in North America, founded by the Virginia Company, which initially struggled but eventually thrived due to tobacco cultivation.
Example:
Jamestown (1607) marked the beginning of sustained English colonization in North America, laying the groundwork for future British colonies.
Joint-Stock Companies
Businesses formed by groups of investors who pooled their money together to finance large-scale ventures, such as colonial expeditions, hoping to profit from the new colonies.
Example:
The Virginia Company, a joint-stock company, funded the establishment of Jamestown, hoping to find gold and other valuable resources.
Juan de Sepulveda
A Spanish humanist and theologian who defended the Spanish conquest and colonization of the Americas, arguing for the natural inferiority of Native Americans and the legitimacy of their subjugation.
Example:
Juan de Sepulveda provided a philosophical justification for the Encomienda System, asserting that Native Americans were naturally suited for servitude.
Maize
Another term for corn, a staple crop domesticated by Native Americans that became a crucial food source and was introduced to Europe through the Columbian Exchange.
Example:
The cultivation of maize allowed for the development of complex societies in the Americas and later became a vital crop in global agriculture.
Missionaries
Religious individuals, primarily Catholic priests from Spain, who traveled to the Americas with the goal of converting Native Americans to Christianity.
Example:
Spanish missionaries often established missions and churches, sometimes forcibly converting indigenous peoples and suppressing their traditional beliefs.
Roanoke
The first attempt by the English to establish a permanent colony in North America, founded in 1587, which mysteriously disappeared by 1590, earning it the nickname 'The Lost Colony'.
Example:
The enigmatic fate of Roanoke served as a cautionary tale for future English colonization efforts, highlighting the immense challenges of establishing settlements in the New World.
The Black Legend
A term used to describe the anti-Spanish propaganda that depicted the Spanish as uniquely cruel and brutal colonizers, particularly in their treatment of Native Americans.
Example:
The Black Legend was often promoted by rival European powers to justify their own colonial ambitions and criticize Spain's methods.