Glossary
Alexander Hamilton
The first U.S. Secretary of the Treasury and a key Federalist leader, known for his influential financial policies that strengthened the federal government.
Example:
Alexander Hamilton proposed a comprehensive financial plan to stabilize the young nation's economy, including the creation of a national bank.
Alien and Sedition Acts (1798)
A series of four laws passed by the Federalist-controlled Congress that restricted the rights of immigrants and limited freedom of speech and the press, targeting political opposition.
Example:
The Alien and Sedition Acts were highly controversial, leading to accusations that the Federalist government was suppressing dissent and violating constitutional rights.
Assumption of State Debts
A key part of Hamilton's financial plan where the federal government took responsibility for the debts incurred by individual states during the Revolutionary War.
Example:
The assumption of state debts was a controversial policy, as some states had already paid off their debts and felt it was unfair to help others.
Bill of Rights (1791)
The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1791, guaranteeing fundamental individual liberties and rights.
Example:
The Bill of Rights was added to the Constitution to appease Anti-Federalists who feared a powerful central government might infringe on personal freedoms.
Cabinet
A body of high-ranking state officials, typically the top leaders of the executive branch departments, who advise the head of government.
Example:
President Washington established the first presidential cabinet, appointing Thomas Jefferson as Secretary of State and Alexander Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury.
Democratic-Republicans
One of the first American political parties, led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, advocating for states' rights, an agrarian economy, and a pro-French foreign policy.
Example:
The Democratic-Republicans feared a powerful central government and championed the rights of the common farmer, often interpreting the Constitution strictly.
Federalists
One of the first American political parties, led by Alexander Hamilton, advocating for a strong central government, a national bank, and a pro-British foreign policy.
Example:
The Federalists generally supported industrial development and a loose interpretation of the Constitution to expand federal power.
French Revolution (1789)
A period of radical social and political upheaval in France that began in 1789, leading to the overthrow of the monarchy and significant European conflicts.
Example:
The French Revolution deeply divided American political opinion, with some supporting its republican ideals and others fearing its radical excesses.
Funding at Full Face Value
Hamilton's proposal to pay back all foreign and domestic debts, including war bonds, at their original value, rather than their depreciated market value.
Example:
By advocating for funding at full face value, Hamilton aimed to restore confidence in the U.S. government's financial reliability and creditworthiness.
Jay's Treaty (1794)
A controversial treaty negotiated by John Jay with Great Britain, which aimed to resolve issues from the Revolutionary War but failed to address impressment or secure neutral shipping rights.
Example:
Jay's Treaty angered many Americans, especially Democratic-Republicans, who felt it favored Britain and betrayed the alliance with France.
Judiciary Act of 1789
A landmark statute that established the federal judiciary of the United States, including the Supreme Court's structure and lower federal courts.
Example:
The Judiciary Act of 1789 laid the groundwork for the federal court system, defining its jurisdiction and the number of Supreme Court justices.
Kentucky Resolutions
Political statements drafted by Thomas Jefferson in response to the Alien and Sedition Acts, arguing that states had the right to nullify unconstitutional federal laws.
Example:
The Kentucky Resolutions articulated the principle of nullification, asserting that states could declare federal laws void if they deemed them unconstitutional.
National Bank
A central financial institution proposed by Alexander Hamilton to hold government funds, issue currency, and provide loans, aiming to stabilize the economy.
Example:
The debate over the constitutionality of creating a National Bank was a major point of contention between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans.
Proclamation of Neutrality (1793)
A formal announcement by President George Washington declaring the United States neutral in the conflict between Great Britain and revolutionary France.
Example:
Washington's Proclamation of Neutrality was a pragmatic decision to protect the young nation from being drawn into costly European wars.
Quasi War (1798-1800)
An undeclared naval conflict between the United States and France, primarily fought in the Caribbean, stemming from French anger over Jay's Treaty and the XYZ Affair.
Example:
Despite intense pressure, President Adams successfully avoided a full-scale war during the Quasi War, preserving the young nation's stability.
Tariffs
Taxes imposed on imported goods, used by governments to generate revenue and protect domestic industries from foreign competition.
Example:
Hamilton proposed high tariffs to encourage American manufacturing by making imported goods more expensive for consumers.
Unanimous Election
The election of George Washington as the first U.S. President, where he received every electoral vote, signifying widespread national unity and trust.
Example:
George Washington's unanimous election in 1789 demonstrated the widespread trust and respect he commanded across the new nation.
Virginia Resolutions
Political statements drafted by James Madison in response to the Alien and Sedition Acts, arguing that states could interpose themselves between the federal government and the people to protect liberties.
Example:
Along with the Kentucky Resolutions, the Virginia Resolutions challenged the federal government's authority and highlighted the growing tensions over states' rights.
Washington's Farewell Address (1796)
A letter written by George Washington to the people of the United States upon his retirement, warning against political factions and permanent foreign alliances.
Example:
In his Washington's Farewell Address, the first president advised future leaders to avoid entangling alliances and to steer clear of excessive partisan strife.
Whiskey Rebellion (1794)
A protest by farmers in western Pennsylvania against a federal tax on whiskey, which was swiftly suppressed by President Washington's militia.
Example:
The government's decisive response to the Whiskey Rebellion demonstrated the new federal government's authority to enforce its laws, unlike the weak Articles of Confederation.
XYZ Affair (1797)
A diplomatic incident in which French agents demanded bribes from American envoys seeking to negotiate an end to French harassment of U.S. shipping.
Example:
The XYZ Affair outraged Americans and led to an undeclared naval conflict with France, known as the Quasi-War.