Glossary
Articles of Confederation
The first governing document of the United States, adopted in 1781, which created a weak central government with limited powers, leading to significant challenges for the new nation.
Example:
Under the Articles of Confederation, the federal government lacked the power to tax or raise a standing army, making it difficult to address economic crises or defend the nation.
Bill of Rights
The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1791, which guarantee fundamental individual liberties and rights, such as freedom of speech, religion, and the press.
Example:
The inclusion of the Bill of Rights was crucial for appeasing Anti-Federalists, who feared a strong central government might infringe upon individual freedoms.
British Advantages
The superior military, naval power, financial resources, and established government that Great Britain possessed at the outset of the Revolutionary War.
Example:
Despite the British Advantages in terms of professional soldiers and a powerful navy, their distance from the colonies proved to be a significant logistical challenge.
British Overextension
Refers to the challenge Britain faced in managing its vast global empire after the French and Indian War. The sheer size and complexity made effective governance and defense difficult.
Example:
The logistical nightmare of governing distant territories contributed to British Overextension, making it harder to enforce new policies in the American colonies.
Checks and Balances
A system incorporated into the U.S. Constitution that grants each branch of government (executive, legislative, judicial) powers to limit or oversee the actions of the other branches, preventing any one branch from becoming too powerful.
Example:
The presidential veto of a bill passed by Congress is a classic example of Checks and Balances in action, ensuring legislative power is not absolute.
Colonial Advantages
The factors that favored the American colonists during the Revolutionary War, including fighting on their home territory, strong leadership, a passionate cause, and eventual foreign support.
Example:
The Colonial Advantages of fighting for their homes and families, combined with George Washington's strategic leadership, helped them overcome the formidable British military.
Colonial Protests
Various forms of resistance and opposition employed by American colonists against British policies, ranging from boycotts and petitions to public demonstrations and acts of defiance like the Boston Tea Party.
Example:
Widespread Colonial Protests, including the non-importation agreements, demonstrated the colonists' growing unity and determination to resist British authority.
Declaration of Independence
A formal statement adopted by the Second Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, declaring the thirteen American colonies independent from Great Britain. It articulated the philosophical foundations for American self-governance.
Example:
The Declaration of Independence asserted the unalienable rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, laying the groundwork for a new nation founded on Enlightenment principles.
Enlightenment Influence
The impact of 18th-century European philosophical movement that emphasized reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authority. These ideas profoundly shaped the American Revolution and the formation of the U.S. government.
Example:
John Locke's ideas on natural rights and Montesquieu's concept of separation of powers were key aspects of Enlightenment Influence on the U.S. Constitution.
European Influence
The ongoing impact of European powers, particularly Britain, France, and Spain, on the foreign policy and internal affairs of the early United States, requiring careful diplomatic navigation.
Example:
The young United States had to carefully manage its European Influence to avoid being drawn into conflicts between major powers like Britain and France.
Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists
The primary political debate during the ratification of the U.S. Constitution, with Federalists advocating for a strong central government and Anti-Federalists favoring stronger state governments and a Bill of Rights.
Example:
The intense debates between Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists highlighted fundamental disagreements over the balance of power between the national government and individual states.
French & Indian War (Seven Years' War)
A global conflict fought between 1754 and 1763, primarily between Great Britain and France, with significant fighting in North America. Its outcome dramatically altered the relationship between Britain and its American colonies.
Example:
After the French & Indian War, Britain was left with massive debt, leading them to impose new taxes on the American colonies.
Interactions with Native Americans
The complex and often violent relationships between the expanding United States and various indigenous peoples, frequently resulting in land displacement, treaties, and warfare.
Example:
As settlers moved west, Interactions with Native Americans often led to forced removals and the erosion of tribal sovereignty.
Intolerable Acts
A series of punitive laws passed by the British Parliament in 1774 in response to the Boston Tea Party. These acts aimed to punish Massachusetts and assert British authority, but instead unified the colonies in opposition.
Example:
The closing of Boston Harbor and the quartering of British troops under the Intolerable Acts were seen by colonists as an attack on their fundamental rights.
John Adams' Presidency
The period from 1797 to 1801 when John Adams served as the second President of the United States, marked by challenges such as the XYZ Affair and the passage of the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts.
Example:
John Adams' Presidency was characterized by heightened tensions with France and domestic political divisions, testing the young nation's stability.
New Political Ideals
The innovative concepts of governance and individual rights that emerged from the American Revolution, emphasizing republicanism, popular sovereignty, and natural rights.
Example:
The New Political Ideals of the American Revolution, such as liberty and equality, inspired future democratic movements around the world.
New Taxes & Regulations
A series of revenue-generating acts and restrictive trade policies imposed by the British Parliament on the American colonies after the French and Indian War. These measures were met with strong colonial opposition.
Example:
The colonists viewed the New Taxes & Regulations, such as the Sugar Act and Currency Act, as an infringement on their economic freedoms and self-governance.
No Taxation Without Representation
A core grievance of the American colonists, asserting that the British Parliament could not levy taxes on them because the colonists had no elected representatives in Parliament. This principle became a rallying cry for the Revolution.
Example:
The cry of 'No Taxation Without Representation' encapsulated the colonists' belief that they should not be subjected to taxes imposed by a distant government in which they had no voice.
Republican Ideals
Political principles emphasizing liberty, popular sovereignty (rule by the people), civic virtue, and the rule of law, which formed the foundation of the new American government.
Example:
The framers of the Constitution were deeply influenced by Republican Ideals, aiming to create a government that protected individual freedoms while preventing tyranny.
Revolutionary War
The armed conflict between Great Britain and its thirteen American colonies, lasting from 1775 to 1783, which resulted in the independence of the United States.
Example:
During the Revolutionary War, the Continental Army, despite being outmatched, used guerrilla tactics and benefited from foreign aid to secure victory.
Self-determination
The principle that a people has the right to freely choose its own sovereignty and international political status without external compulsion. It was a core ideal driving the American Revolution.
Example:
The American Revolution was fundamentally a fight for self-determination, as the colonists sought to govern themselves free from British parliamentary control.
Stamp Act
A 1765 British law that required colonists to pay a tax on almost all printed materials, including legal documents, newspapers, and playing cards. It was one of the first direct taxes on the colonies and sparked widespread protest.
Example:
The Sons of Liberty organized boycotts and protests against the Stamp Act, arguing that Parliament had no right to tax them without their consent.
US Constitution
The supreme law of the United States, ratified in 1788, which established the framework for the federal government and guaranteed certain rights for its citizens. It replaced the Articles of Confederation.
Example:
The US Constitution created a stronger federal government with distinct branches, addressing the weaknesses of the previous governing document.
War Debt
The financial burden incurred by Great Britain as a result of fighting the French and Indian War. This debt was a primary reason for Britain's decision to impose new taxes on the American colonies.
Example:
To alleviate its significant War Debt, the British Parliament sought to raise revenue directly from the American colonists, sparking widespread resentment.
Washington's Presidency
The period from 1789 to 1797 when George Washington served as the first President of the United States, during which he established many precedents for the executive branch and navigated early domestic and foreign policy challenges.
Example:
Washington's Presidency set the two-term limit tradition and emphasized neutrality in foreign affairs, shaping the future course of American leadership.
Westward Expansion
The movement of American settlers and the U.S. frontier westward across the North American continent, leading to territorial growth but also conflicts over land and resources.
Example:
Westward Expansion after the Revolution opened up new lands for settlement but also intensified conflicts with Native American tribes.