Glossary
Abolition of International Slave Trade
The act passed by Congress in 1807, effective January 1, 1808, prohibiting the importation of enslaved people into the United States.
Example:
While not ending slavery itself, the Abolition of International Slave Trade was a significant step in limiting the expansion of the institution within the United States.
Abolitionism
The movement to end slavery, which gained significant momentum in the Northern states during the early 19th century, creating a major point of contention with the Southern states.
Example:
The rise of abolitionism in the North, with its moral arguments against human bondage, directly challenged the economic and social foundations of the Southern states.
Agrarian focus
An economic and social philosophy that emphasizes agriculture and rural life as the foundation of a nation's prosperity and virtue.
Example:
The Democratic-Republicans' agrarian focus led them to advocate for policies that supported small farmers and westward expansion, rather than industrial development.
Alien and Sedition Acts
A series of four laws passed by the Federalist-controlled Congress in 1798, designed to suppress dissent and limit the rights of immigrants, seen as an attack on Democratic-Republican opposition.
Example:
The Alien and Sedition Acts were widely criticized for violating First Amendment rights and fueled public resentment against the Federalist government, contributing to their loss in the 1800 election.
Anti-Federalists
A political faction that opposed the ratification of the U.S. Constitution, fearing a strong central government would threaten individual liberties and states' rights.
Example:
Unlike the Democratic-Republicans who worked within the Constitution, the Anti-Federalists were fundamentally against its adoption without a Bill of Rights.
Cohens v. Virginia (1821)
A Supreme Court case that affirmed the Supreme Court's authority to review state court decisions involving federal law, reinforcing federal supremacy.
Example:
Cohens v. Virginia solidified the Supreme Court's role as the ultimate arbiter of constitutional questions, even when they originated in state courts.
Contract Law
The body of law that governs agreements between parties, ensuring that promises made in contracts are legally binding and enforceable.
Example:
The ruling in Dartmouth College v. Woodward significantly strengthened contract law by protecting the original charter of the college from state legislative changes.
Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819)
A Supreme Court case that protected private contracts from state interference, limiting the power of state governments to alter corporate charters.
Example:
Dartmouth College v. Woodward reinforced the sanctity of contracts, providing stability for businesses and corporations by preventing states from arbitrarily changing their agreements.
Democratic-Republicans
One of the two major political parties of the First Party System, led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, advocating for states' rights, a strict interpretation of the Constitution, and an agrarian-focused economy.
Example:
Thomas Jefferson's vision of an America populated by independent yeoman farmers resonated deeply with the ideals of the Democratic-Republicans.
Embargo Act (1807)
A law passed by Congress under Jefferson that prohibited American ships from trading in all foreign ports, intended to pressure Britain and France but severely damaging the U.S. economy.
Example:
The Embargo Act was deeply unpopular, particularly in New England, as it crippled American shipping and led to widespread economic hardship.
End of National Bank (1811)
The expiration of the charter for the First Bank of the United States in 1811, which was not renewed due to opposition from Democratic-Republicans.
Example:
The End of National Bank in 1811 reflected the Democratic-Republican commitment to a strict interpretation of the Constitution and weakened the financial infrastructure favored by Federalists.
Era of Good Feelings
A period in American history (roughly 1815-1825) characterized by a sense of national purpose and unity, largely due to the decline of the Federalist Party and one-party rule by Democratic-Republicans.
Example:
Despite the name, the Era of Good Feelings was not entirely harmonious, as underlying sectional tensions over slavery and economic policy began to emerge.
Federal Supremacy
The principle that federal law takes precedence over state law when there is a conflict, as established by the Supremacy Clause of the Constitution.
Example:
The Marshall Court's decisions, such as Cohens v. Virginia, consistently reinforced the principle of federal supremacy, ensuring that national laws and treaties were paramount.
Federalists
One of the two major political parties of the First Party System, led by Alexander Hamilton and John Adams, advocating for a strong central government, a loose interpretation of the Constitution, and a pro-business economy.
Example:
Many wealthy merchants and bankers in New England were staunch Federalists, believing a powerful federal government was essential for economic stability and national prestige.
First Party System
The period in American history (late 1700s - early 1800s) characterized by the emergence and competition of two major political parties: the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans.
Example:
The intense debates over the national bank and foreign policy during George Washington's presidency exemplified the early conflicts of the First Party System.
Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)
A Supreme Court case that affirmed the federal government's exclusive power to regulate interstate commerce under the Commerce Clause of the Constitution.
Example:
Gibbons v. Ogden prevented states from granting monopolies over steamboat navigation on interstate waterways, promoting free trade and competition across state lines.
Implied Powers
Powers of the federal government that are not explicitly stated in the Constitution but are inferred as necessary and proper for carrying out the enumerated powers.
Example:
The creation of the national bank, though not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, was justified by the concept of implied powers as necessary for the government to manage its finances.
Interstate Commerce
Commercial trade or business transactions that involve more than one state, which the U.S. Constitution grants the federal government the power to regulate.
Example:
The ruling in Gibbons v. Ogden was crucial for the development of a national economy, ensuring that states could not impede interstate commerce with their own regulations.
Jay Treaty
A controversial 1794 treaty between the United States and Great Britain that aimed to resolve outstanding issues from the American Revolution but was seen by many as too favorable to Britain.
Example:
The Jay Treaty sparked widespread public outrage and contributed to the decline in popularity of the Federalist Party, especially among those who favored France.
Judicial Review
The power of the Supreme Court to determine whether a law or government action is constitutional, established in the case of Marbury v. Madison.
Example:
The principle of judicial review allows the Supreme Court to strike down laws passed by Congress or actions taken by the President if they are deemed unconstitutional, as seen in the landmark case of Marbury v. Madison.
Lewis and Clark Expedition
A federally funded expedition (1804-1806) led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to explore and map the newly acquired Louisiana Territory.
Example:
The Lewis and Clark Expedition provided invaluable information about the geography, resources, and Native American tribes of the vast western lands.
Loose interpretation
A constitutional philosophy that holds the federal government can exercise powers not explicitly listed in the Constitution, as long as they are 'necessary and proper' for carrying out enumerated powers.
Example:
Alexander Hamilton's argument for creating a national bank relied on a loose interpretation of the Constitution, suggesting it was an implied power necessary for the government's financial stability.
Louisiana Purchase
The 1803 acquisition by the United States of approximately 828,000 square miles of territory from France for $15 million, doubling the size of the young nation.
Example:
The Louisiana Purchase was a monumental achievement for Jefferson, opening vast new lands for westward expansion and securing control of the Mississippi River.
Marbury v. Madison (1803)
A landmark Supreme Court case that established the principle of judicial review, allowing the Supreme Court to declare acts of Congress unconstitutional.
Example:
Marbury v. Madison is considered the most important Supreme Court case in U.S. history because it solidified the judiciary's role as a co-equal branch of government.
Marshall Supreme Court
The period (1801-1835) during which John Marshall served as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, significantly strengthening the power of the federal government and the judiciary.
Example:
The decisions of the Marshall Supreme Court consistently upheld federal authority over state power, shaping the balance of power in the young republic.
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)
A Supreme Court case that upheld the constitutionality of the national bank and established the principle of implied powers under the 'necessary and proper' clause.
Example:
In McCulloch v. Maryland, Chief Justice Marshall famously declared that 'the power to tax involves the power to destroy,' preventing states from taxing federal institutions like the national bank.
National bank
A central financial institution proposed by Alexander Hamilton to stabilize the nation's economy, manage federal funds, and issue currency.
Example:
The debate over the creation of the national bank was a major point of contention between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans, highlighting their differing views on federal power and economic policy.
Protective tariffs
Taxes on imported goods designed to protect domestic industries from foreign competition by making foreign goods more expensive.
Example:
Early American manufacturers often lobbied for protective tariffs to ensure their nascent industries could compete against established British factories.
Revolution of 1800
The peaceful transfer of power from the Federalist Party to the Democratic-Republican Party with Thomas Jefferson's election as president, signifying the strength of American democracy.
Example:
Jefferson's victory, despite intense partisan animosity, demonstrated that American democracy could withstand a change in leadership, marking the 'Revolution of 1800' as a pivotal moment.
Sectionalism
Loyalty to one's own region or section of the country, rather than to the country as a whole, often leading to conflicts of interest between different regions.
Example:
The growing economic differences between the industrial North and the agrarian, slave-holding South fueled increasing sectionalism that would eventually lead to the Civil War.
Strict interpretation
A constitutional philosophy that holds the federal government can only exercise powers explicitly granted to it by the Constitution.
Example:
Thomas Jefferson initially struggled with the constitutionality of the Louisiana Purchase because his belief in a strict interpretation of the Constitution did not explicitly grant the president power to acquire new territory.
Tribal Sovereignty
The inherent authority of Indigenous tribes to govern themselves within their own territories, recognized by the U.S. government as distinct political entities.
Example:
The Tribal Sovereignty affirmed in Worcester v. Georgia meant that state laws did not apply within Cherokee lands, though this principle was often ignored in practice.
Two-Party System
A political system in which two major political parties dominate the political landscape, typically alternating in power.
Example:
The emergence of the Federalists and Democratic-Republicans established the Two-Party System that has largely characterized American politics ever since.
U.S. Patent and Trademark Office
A government agency established in 1802 under Jefferson's presidency to promote innovation by granting patents for new inventions.
Example:
The establishment of the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office reflected a commitment to fostering American ingenuity and technological advancement.
Worcester v. Georgia (1832)
A Supreme Court case that recognized the sovereignty of Native American tribes and their right to self-governance, ruling that Georgia law had no force in Cherokee territory.
Example:
Despite the Supreme Court's ruling in Worcester v. Georgia, President Andrew Jackson famously defied the decision, leading to the forced removal of the Cherokee Nation.
Yeoman farmers
Independent, self-sufficient farmers who owned their own land, often seen as the backbone of a virtuous republic by Democratic-Republicans.
Example:
Jefferson envisioned a nation primarily composed of virtuous yeoman farmers, believing they were the most reliable foundation for a democratic society.