Glossary
#MeToo movement
A social movement that gained widespread prominence in 2017, raising awareness about the prevalence of sexual harassment and assault, particularly in the workplace.
Example:
The #MeToo movement empowered countless individuals to share their experiences of sexual misconduct, leading to increased accountability and public discourse on the issue.
Affirmative action
Policies designed to address past and present discrimination by promoting increased opportunities for historically disadvantaged groups, particularly in employment and education.
Example:
Affirmative action policies aim to create a more diverse workforce and student body by considering factors like race or gender in admissions and hiring processes.
Alcatraz Island occupation (1969)
A protest by Native American activists, primarily from the group Indians of All Tribes, who occupied Alcatraz Island in San Francisco Bay from 1969 to 1971 to demand federal recognition of Native American land rights and sovereignty.
Example:
The Alcatraz Island occupation (1969) brought significant media attention to the plight of Native Americans and their demands for self-determination.
American Indian Movement (AIM)
A Native American advocacy group founded in 1968, dedicated to addressing systemic issues of discrimination, poverty, and treaty violations faced by Indigenous peoples.
Example:
The American Indian Movement (AIM) engaged in direct action and protests, such as the occupation of Wounded Knee, to draw attention to Native American grievances and demand self-determination.
Baker v. Carr
A 1962 Supreme Court case that established the principle of 'one person, one vote,' mandating that legislative districts must be roughly equal in population.
Example:
Baker v. Carr revolutionized American politics by ensuring that every citizen's vote carries equal weight, leading to significant reapportionment efforts across states.
Betty Friedan
An American feminist, activist, and writer, best known for her 1963 book *The Feminine Mystique* and as a co-founder of the National Organization for Women (NOW).
Example:
Betty Friedan's influential writings helped spark the second wave of feminism by articulating the dissatisfaction many women felt with their limited roles in society.
Brown v. Board of Education
A landmark 1954 Supreme Court case that declared state-sponsored segregation in public schools unconstitutional, overturning the 'separate but equal' doctrine established by Plessy v. Ferguson.
Example:
The decision in Brown v. Board of Education was a pivotal moment for the Civil Rights Movement, signaling the beginning of the end for legal segregation in American education.
Chief Justice Earl Warren
The Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court from 1953 to 1969, under whose leadership the Court issued numerous groundbreaking decisions on civil rights and individual liberties.
Example:
Chief Justice Earl Warren presided over the Supreme Court during a transformative era, leading to decisions like Brown v. Board of Education that challenged segregation.
Cisgender
A term for people whose gender identity aligns with the sex they were assigned at birth.
Example:
A person who identifies as a woman and was assigned female at birth is considered cisgender.
Civil Rights Act of 1964
A landmark civil rights and labor law in the United States that outlaws discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.
Example:
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was a monumental piece of legislation that not only addressed racial discrimination but also, through Title VII, prohibited discrimination based on sex in employment.
Civil unions
Legal relationships that provide many of the same rights and responsibilities as marriage, but are typically limited to the state level and do not carry the same federal recognition.
Example:
Before nationwide marriage equality, states like Vermont offered civil unions to same-sex couples, granting them some legal protections similar to marriage.
Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA)
A 1996 federal law that defined marriage for federal purposes as the union of one man and one woman, and allowed states to refuse to recognize same-sex marriages performed in other states.
Example:
The Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) was a significant barrier to same-sex marriage recognition until key parts of it were declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.
Engel v. Vitale
A 1962 Supreme Court case that ruled mandatory prayer in public schools unconstitutional, citing the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.
Example:
The ruling in Engel v. Vitale affirmed the separation of church and state by preventing public schools from requiring students to participate in prayer.
Equal Pay Act of 1963
A federal law that aimed to abolish wage disparity based on sex, requiring equal pay for equal work.
Example:
The Equal Pay Act of 1963 was an early legislative victory for the women's movement, though its enforcement proved challenging in practice.
Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)
A proposed amendment to the U.S. Constitution designed to guarantee equal legal rights for all American citizens regardless of sex.
Example:
Despite passing Congress in 1972, the Equal Rights Amendment ultimately failed to be ratified by enough states within the given deadline, leaving its constitutional status uncertain.
Equality Act
Proposed federal legislation in the United States that would amend the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity.
Example:
The Equality Act aims to provide comprehensive federal protections for LGBTQ+ individuals in areas like employment, housing, and public accommodations.
Exclusionary rule
A legal principle, established in Mapp v. Ohio, that prohibits the use of illegally obtained evidence in a criminal trial.
Example:
The exclusionary rule means that if police search a home without a warrant and find incriminating evidence, that evidence cannot be used against the defendant in court.
Executive Order 10450
An executive order signed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1953 that barred homosexuals from federal employment, contributing to the Lavender Scare.
Example:
Executive Order 10450 codified discrimination against gay individuals in federal service, leading to widespread dismissals and a climate of fear.
Executive Order 11246
An executive order issued by President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1965 that required federal contractors to take affirmative action to ensure equal employment opportunities without regard to race, religion, sex, or national origin.
Example:
Executive Order 11246 was a foundational step in implementing affirmative action policies across federal contracts.
Gay Liberation Movement
A social and political movement that emerged in the late 1960s, advocating for the rights, acceptance, and equality of LGBTQ+ individuals.
Example:
The Gay Liberation Movement transformed the fight for LGBTQ+ rights from a quiet struggle into a visible and vocal demand for equality.
Gender
A social construct referring to the roles, behaviors, expressions, and identities of girls, women, boys, men, and gender diverse people.
Example:
Societal expectations often dictate specific gender roles, but the Gay Liberation Movement challenged these rigid definitions.
Gideon v. Wainwright
A 1963 Supreme Court case that ruled that states are required to provide legal counsel to indigent defendants in felony cases.
Example:
After Gideon v. Wainwright, even someone who cannot afford a lawyer has the right to legal representation, ensuring a fairer trial for all.
Glass ceiling
An invisible barrier that prevents women and minorities from advancing to senior positions in the workplace, despite their qualifications and achievements.
Example:
Many women in the corporate world still face a glass ceiling, finding it difficult to break into top leadership roles regardless of their talent and hard work.
Griswold v. Connecticut
A 1965 Supreme Court case that established a constitutional right to privacy regarding marital contraception, laying the groundwork for future privacy-related decisions.
Example:
Griswold v. Connecticut recognized an implied right to privacy in the Constitution, allowing married couples to make decisions about contraception without state interference.
Indian Self-Determination Act of 1975
A federal law that granted Native American tribes greater control over their own affairs, including the administration of federal programs and resources.
Example:
The Indian Self-Determination Act of 1975 was a significant victory for AIM, allowing tribes to manage their own education, health, and social services.
LGBTQ
An acronym standing for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer (or Questioning), used as an umbrella term to refer to diverse sexual orientations and gender identities.
Example:
The LGBTQ community encompasses a wide range of identities, all united in their pursuit of equal rights and acceptance.
Lavender Scare
A moral panic and witch hunt during the 1950s that targeted homosexuals in the U.S. government, fueled by the Red Scare and the belief that gay individuals were security risks.
Example:
During the Lavender Scare, thousands of federal employees were fired or resigned under pressure due to suspicions about their sexual orientation.
Mapp v. Ohio
A 1961 Supreme Court case that established the exclusionary rule, making illegally obtained evidence inadmissible in state courts.
Example:
Thanks to Mapp v. Ohio, police cannot use evidence found during an illegal search, ensuring that individuals are protected from unreasonable searches and seizures.
Masterpiece Cakeshop v. Colorado Civil Rights Commission
A 2018 Supreme Court case involving a baker who refused to create a wedding cake for a same-sex couple, raising questions about the conflict between religious freedom and anti-discrimination laws.
Example:
Masterpiece Cakeshop v. Colorado Civil Rights Commission highlighted the ongoing tension between religious liberty claims and the rights of LGBTQ+ individuals to be free from discrimination.
Miranda rights
A set of rights that a person accused of a crime must be informed of before being interrogated, including the right to remain silent and the right to an attorney.
Example:
Before questioning a suspect, police must read them their Miranda rights to ensure any statements made are voluntary and admissible in court.
Miranda v. Arizona
A 1966 Supreme Court case that established the requirement for law enforcement to inform criminal suspects of their constitutional rights before questioning.
Example:
The famous 'You have the right to remain silent' warning, known as the Miranda rights, stems directly from the Supreme Court's decision in Miranda v. Arizona.
National Organization for Women (NOW)
An American feminist organization founded in 1966 by Betty Friedan and others, dedicated to promoting women's rights and achieving gender equality.
Example:
NOW actively campaigned for the Equal Rights Amendment and fought against discrimination in employment and education, becoming a leading voice for women's liberation.
Numerical quotas
A controversial form of affirmative action that involves setting specific numerical targets or percentages for the inclusion of certain demographic groups, often deemed unconstitutional by courts.
Example:
The Supreme Court has generally ruled against the use of strict numerical quotas in affirmative action, favoring policies that consider race as one factor among many.
Obergefell v. Hodges
A landmark 2015 Supreme Court case that ruled the right to marry is guaranteed to same-sex couples by both the Due Process Clause and the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
Example:
Obergefell v. Hodges legalized same-sex marriage nationwide, marking a monumental victory for the LGBTQ+ rights movement.
Queer
An umbrella term used by some individuals to describe sexual or gender identities that are not exclusively heterosexual or cisgender.
Example:
Some individuals use the term queer to express an identity that embraces fluidity and rejects traditional labels of gender and sexuality.
Regents of the University of CA v. Bakke
A 1978 Supreme Court case that upheld affirmative action, allowing race to be a factor in college admissions, but struck down the use of strict racial quotas.
Example:
Regents of the University of CA v. Bakke established a nuanced legal precedent for affirmative action, permitting consideration of race but prohibiting rigid set-asides.
Sexual harassment
Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical harassment of a sexual nature, recognized as a form of discrimination under the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
Example:
The Supreme Court's ruling in 1986 clarified that sexual harassment in the workplace is a form of illegal discrimination, protecting employees from hostile environments.
Stonewall Riots
A series of spontaneous, violent demonstrations by members of the LGBTQ+ community against a police raid that took place in the early morning hours of June 28, 1969, at the Stonewall Inn in Greenwich Village, New York City, widely considered the catalyst for the modern gay rights movement.
Example:
The Stonewall Riots marked a turning point, transforming the fight for gay rights from a quiet advocacy into a public and defiant movement.
The Feminine Mystique
A groundbreaking 1963 book by Betty Friedan that explored the widespread unhappiness of women in the 1950s and 1960s who were confined to traditional domestic roles.
Example:
The Feminine Mystique became a catalyst for the modern women's movement, encouraging women to seek personal fulfillment beyond the home.
Title IX
A federal civil rights law passed as part of the Education Amendments of 1972 that prohibits sex-based discrimination in any education program or activity receiving federal financial assistance.
Example:
Title IX dramatically increased opportunities for women in collegiate sports, requiring schools to provide equitable athletic programs for both sexes.
Warren Court
The period of the U.S. Supreme Court led by Chief Justice Earl Warren (1953-1969), known for its landmark decisions that significantly expanded individual rights and liberties.
Example:
The Warren Court fundamentally reshaped American society by extending federal protections to state and local levels, impacting everything from criminal justice to civil rights.
Women's Movement
A broad social and political movement in the 1960s and 1970s that advocated for gender equality, challenging traditional roles and discrimination against women.
Example:
The Women's Movement pushed for significant changes in law and society, from equal pay to reproductive rights, fundamentally altering the landscape for women in America.
Wounded Knee occupation (1973)
A 71-day armed standoff between members of the American Indian Movement (AIM) and federal agents at Wounded Knee, South Dakota, protesting government policies and demanding tribal sovereignty.
Example:
The Wounded Knee occupation (1973) was a dramatic demonstration of AIM's commitment to fighting for Native American rights and challenging federal authority.