Glossary
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)
A chronic, potentially life-threatening condition caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which damages the immune system.
Example:
The emergence of the AIDS epidemic in the 1980s presented a significant public health crisis and challenged societal norms.
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
A landmark civil rights law signed in 1990 that prohibits discrimination against individuals with disabilities in all areas of public life.
Example:
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) mandated accessibility requirements for public buildings and transportation, greatly improving opportunities for disabled individuals.
Anti-Crime Bill
The Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994, a comprehensive federal crime bill that provided funding for more police, prevention programs, and banned certain assault weapons.
Example:
The 1994 Anti-Crime Bill was a bipartisan effort to address rising crime rates, though some of its provisions, like the assault weapons ban, were controversial.
Bakke v. California
A 1978 Supreme Court case that upheld affirmative action, allowing race to be one of several factors in college admissions, but ruled that specific racial quotas were impermissible.
Example:
The Bakke v. California decision set a precedent for affirmative action policies, attempting to balance diversity goals with individual rights.
Bill Clinton
The 42nd President of the United States (1993-2001), a 'New Democrat' who pursued centrist policies.
Example:
Bill Clinton's presidency was marked by economic prosperity, welfare reform, and a major impeachment trial.
Brady Handgun Bill
A 1993 federal law that mandated federal background checks on firearm purchasers in the United States and imposed a five-day waiting period on handgun purchases.
Example:
The Brady Handgun Bill was a significant piece of gun control legislation, named after James Brady, who was injured in the assassination attempt on Ronald Reagan.
Challenger
One of NASA's space shuttles that tragically exploded shortly after liftoff on January 28, 1986, killing all seven astronauts aboard.
Example:
The Challenger disaster was a devastating blow to the space program and led to a temporary halt in shuttle flights.
Christa McAuliffe
A high school teacher who was selected to be the first civilian in space and was tragically killed in the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster.
Example:
Christa McAuliffe's participation in the Challenger mission aimed to inspire students and bring space exploration closer to the public.
Clarence Thomas
An Associate Justice of the Supreme Court, nominated by President George H.W. Bush in 1991, whose confirmation hearings were marked by controversy over sexual harassment allegations.
Example:
The confirmation of Clarence Thomas to the Supreme Court was one of the most divisive in modern American history.
Columbine High School
The site of a mass shooting on April 20, 1999, where two students killed 13 people before committing suicide, sparking national debates on gun control and school safety.
Example:
The tragedy at Columbine High School became a watershed moment, leading to increased security measures in schools and renewed calls for stricter gun laws.
Contract with America
A legislative agenda released by the Republican Party during the 1994 midterm election campaign, outlining conservative policy goals.
Example:
The Contract with America helped Republicans gain control of both houses of Congress for the first time in decades.
Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA)
A 1996 federal law that defined marriage as between one man and one woman for federal purposes and allowed states to refuse to recognize same-sex marriages performed in other states.
Example:
DOMA was a federal response to the growing movement for same-sex marriage, though it was later overturned by Supreme Court decisions.
Don’t ask, don’t tell
A U.S. military policy from 1994 to 2010 that allowed gay and lesbian people to serve as long as they did not reveal their sexual orientation or engage in homosexual acts.
Example:
The Don’t ask, don’t tell policy was a controversial compromise that allowed some gay individuals to serve but still enforced discrimination.
ERA
The Equal Rights Amendment, a proposed amendment to the United States Constitution designed to guarantee equal legal rights for all American citizens regardless of sex.
Example:
Despite widespread support, the ERA ultimately failed to be ratified by enough states, leaving its protections unenshrined in the Constitution.
Economic Recovery Act of 1981
A major piece of legislation signed by President Reagan that significantly cut federal income taxes, corporate taxes, and capital gains taxes.
Example:
The Economic Recovery Act of 1981 was a cornerstone of Reaganomics, aiming to stimulate the economy through broad tax reductions.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
A federal agency responsible for protecting human health and the environment by writing and enforcing regulations based on laws passed by Congress.
Example:
The EPA plays a crucial role in monitoring air and water quality and enforcing pollution control standards.
Family and Medical Leave Act
A 1993 federal law that requires covered employers to provide employees with job-protected unpaid leave for qualified medical and family reasons.
Example:
The Family and Medical Leave Act allowed millions of Americans to take time off work for childbirth or serious illness without fear of losing their jobs.
George H.W. Bush
The 41st President of the United States (1989-1993), who previously served as Vice President under Ronald Reagan.
Example:
George H.W. Bush oversaw the end of the Cold War and the Persian Gulf War during his presidency.
Great Society
A set of domestic programs in the United States launched by President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1964–65, aimed at eliminating poverty and racial injustice.
Example:
Programs like Medicare and Medicaid, part of the Great Society, fundamentally reshaped the role of government in healthcare.
H. Ross Perot
An American businessman and independent presidential candidate in 1992 and 1996, known for his focus on the national debt.
Example:
H. Ross Perot's strong third-party showing in 1992 highlighted public frustration with the two major parties and the national debt.
House Speaker Newt Gingrich
A Republican Congressman who served as Speaker of the House from 1995 to 1999, known for leading the 'Contract with America' and confronting President Clinton.
Example:
House Speaker Newt Gingrich became a prominent figure in the Republican Revolution of 1994, pushing for conservative reforms.
Iran Hostage Crisis
A diplomatic crisis between Iran and the United States where 52 American diplomats and citizens were held hostage for 444 days from November 4, 1979, to January 20, 1981.
Example:
The prolonged Iran Hostage Crisis significantly damaged President Carter's public image and contributed to his electoral defeat.
Just Say No
An anti-drug campaign popularized in the 1980s, primarily aimed at discouraging children and teenagers from experimenting with illegal drugs.
Example:
First Lady Nancy Reagan's Just Say No campaign became a widely recognized slogan during the War on Drugs.
Kenneth Starr
The independent counsel appointed to investigate the Whitewater controversy, whose investigation later expanded to include President Clinton's affair with Monica Lewinsky.
Example:
Kenneth Starr's detailed report on President Clinton's conduct formed the basis for the impeachment articles against him.
Keynesian economics
An economic theory that advocates for government intervention, particularly through increased government spending, to stimulate demand and combat economic downturns.
Example:
During the Great Recession, many economists advocated for Keynesian economics principles, urging government stimulus packages to boost the economy.
Kyoto Protocol
An international treaty adopted in 1997 that committed industrialized countries to limit and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Example:
The United States signed but did not ratify the Kyoto Protocol, citing concerns about its economic impact and the exclusion of developing nations.
LGBT rights
The movement advocating for the legal and social equality of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender individuals.
Example:
The fight for LGBT rights has seen significant progress, from the Stonewall Riots to the legalization of same-sex marriage.
Law and Order
A political slogan and approach emphasizing strict enforcement of laws and severe penalties for criminal behavior, often associated with conservative political platforms.
Example:
Nixon's appeal to Law and Order resonated with voters concerned about rising crime rates and social unrest in the late 1960s.
Matthew Shepard
A gay college student who was brutally murdered in Wyoming in 1998, an event that brought national attention to hate crimes against LGBTQ+ individuals.
Example:
The tragic death of Matthew Shepard spurred calls for stronger hate-crime legislation and greater awareness of anti-LGBTQ+ violence.
Monica Lewinsky
A White House intern whose affair with President Bill Clinton became public in 1998, leading to his impeachment.
Example:
The revelations about Monica Lewinsky's affair with President Clinton ignited a major political scandal and impeachment crisis.
Nancy Reagan
The First Lady of the United States from 1981 to 1989, wife of President Ronald Reagan, known for her 'Just Say No' anti-drug campaign.
Example:
Nancy Reagan played a prominent role in public life, particularly through her advocacy for drug prevention.
New Deal
A series of programs and reforms implemented in the United States by President Franklin D. Roosevelt during the Great Depression.
Example:
The New Deal established Social Security, providing a safety net that continues to impact American lives today.
New Democrat
A term used to describe a faction of the Democratic Party that emerged in the 1980s and 1990s, advocating for more centrist, fiscally conservative, and socially moderate policies.
Example:
As a New Democrat, Bill Clinton sought to distance himself from traditional liberal policies and appeal to a broader electorate.
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
A 1994 agreement that eliminated most tariffs and trade barriers between the United States, Canada, and Mexico.
Example:
NAFTA aimed to create a single market across North America, leading to both economic benefits and job displacement concerns.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
A federal agency that sets and enforces protective workplace safety and health standards.
Example:
OSHA regulations require employers to provide a safe working environment, such as ensuring proper safety equipment is used.
Paula Jones
A former Arkansas state employee who filed a sexual harassment lawsuit against President Bill Clinton in 1994.
Example:
The lawsuit filed by Paula Jones ultimately led to the discovery of President Clinton's affair with Monica Lewinsky and his impeachment proceedings.
Read my lips. No new taxes.
A famous promise made by George H.W. Bush during his 1988 presidential campaign, which he later broke, contributing to his defeat in 1992.
Example:
The broken promise of 'Read my lips. No new taxes' became a significant political liability for President Bush.
Robert Bork
A conservative legal scholar whose 1987 nomination to the Supreme Court by President Reagan was rejected by the Senate due to his controversial views.
Example:
The highly contentious confirmation hearings for Robert Bork highlighted the increasing politicization of judicial appointments.
Roe v. Wade
A landmark 1973 Supreme Court decision that established a woman's constitutional right to an abortion, based on the right to privacy under the Fourteenth Amendment.
Example:
The ruling in Roe v. Wade sparked a lasting national debate over abortion rights and the role of government in personal medical decisions.
Sandra Day O’Connor
The first woman appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court, serving as an Associate Justice from 1981 to 2006.
Example:
President Reagan's nomination of Sandra Day O’Connor was a historic moment, breaking a long-standing gender barrier on the nation's highest court.
Travelgate
A 1993 controversy involving the firing of White House travel office employees, which critics alleged was done to replace them with Clinton's associates.
Example:
Travelgate was one of several minor scandals that plagued the early years of the Clinton presidency.
Whitewater
A real estate investment controversy involving Bill and Hillary Clinton from the 1970s and 1980s that became the subject of a federal investigation during Clinton's presidency.
Example:
The Whitewater investigation, though it found no wrongdoing by the Clintons, contributed to a climate of scandal during his administration.
William Rehnquist
An Associate Justice of the Supreme Court who was later elevated to Chief Justice by President Reagan, known for his conservative judicial philosophy.
Example:
Under Chief Justice William Rehnquist, the Supreme Court often took a more conservative stance on issues like federalism and individual rights.
air traffic controllers union (PATCO)
The Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization, a labor union whose strike in 1981 led to President Reagan firing most of its members.
Example:
Reagan's decisive action against the PATCO strike sent a strong message to other unions about the government's stance on labor disputes.
anti-war
Opposition to a particular war or to war in general, often expressed through protests and activism.
Example:
The widespread anti-war sentiment during the Vietnam War led to massive demonstrations across the United States.
balanced the budget
A financial plan where government revenues equal government expenditures, resulting in no deficit or surplus.
Example:
Under President Clinton, the federal government successfully balanced the budget for the first time in decades, achieving a surplus.
borked
A political neologism meaning to obstruct someone, especially a nominee to public office, through an organized and often partisan attack on their character or qualifications.
Example:
After his contentious Senate hearings, the term 'borked' became synonymous with a judicial nomination being turned down due to intense political opposition.
budget deficit
The amount by which government spending exceeds government revenue in a given fiscal year.
Example:
Reagan's tax cuts combined with increased military spending led to a significant rise in the national budget deficit.
bussing
The practice of transporting students by bus to schools outside their neighborhoods, especially as a means of achieving racial integration.
Example:
Controversies over bussing in cities like Boston highlighted the deep divisions over racial integration in education.
civil rights
The rights of citizens to political and social freedom and equality, often referring to the movement to end racial discrimination in the United States.
Example:
The civil rights movement of the 1950s and 60s, led by figures like Martin Luther King Jr., fought for equal rights for African Americans.
domestic terrorism
Terrorist acts committed by individuals or groups inspired by or associated with U.S.-based movements that espouse extremist ideologies of a political, religious, social, racial, or environmental nature.
Example:
The rise of white supremacist groups and anti-government militias has contributed to concerns about domestic terrorism in the United States.
federal building in Oklahoma City by Timothy McVeigh
The bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City on April 19, 1995, by domestic terrorist Timothy McVeigh, killing 168 people.
Example:
The bombing of the federal building in Oklahoma City by Timothy McVeigh was the deadliest act of domestic terrorism in U.S. history until 9/11.
feminism
A range of social movements, political movements, and ideologies that aim to define and establish the political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes.
Example:
The second wave of feminism in the 1960s and 70s pushed for greater equality in the workplace and challenged traditional gender roles.
fiscal conservatives
Individuals who advocate for lower government spending, reduced taxation, and minimal government debt.
Example:
Many fiscal conservatives argue that excessive government regulation stifles economic growth and individual liberty.
free trade
A policy where governments do not restrict imports or exports, allowing goods and services to flow across international borders without tariffs or quotas.
Example:
Advocates of free trade argue it promotes economic efficiency and lower consumer prices, while critics raise concerns about job losses and environmental impacts.
gay-panic
A legal defense strategy in which a defendant claims that the discovery of a victim's sexual orientation or gender identity provoked a violent reaction.
Example:
The banning of the gay-panic defense in some jurisdictions marked a step forward in protecting LGBTQ+ individuals from violence.
hate-crime legislation
Laws that enhance penalties for crimes motivated by bias against a victim's race, religion, ethnicity, national origin, sexual orientation, disability, or gender.
Example:
The murder of Matthew Shepard intensified calls for federal hate-crime legislation to protect vulnerable groups.
impeachment
The process by which a legislative body formally levels charges against a high official of government, potentially leading to removal from office.
Example:
President Clinton faced impeachment charges for perjury and obstruction of justice related to the Monica Lewinsky scandal, though he was acquitted by the Senate.
military spending
The amount of financial resources a nation allocates to its armed forces and defense-related activities.
Example:
During the Cold War, the United States significantly increased its military spending to counter the Soviet threat.
motor voter
A nickname for the National Voter Registration Act of 1993, which made it easier for Americans to register to vote by allowing them to do so when applying for a driver's license.
Example:
The motor voter law aimed to increase voter participation by simplifying the registration process.
pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP)
A medication taken by HIV-negative individuals to prevent HIV infection, particularly effective for those at high risk.
Example:
The introduction of PrEP has been a major breakthrough in HIV prevention, offering a new tool to curb the spread of the virus.
recession
A significant decline in economic activity spread across the economy, generally visible in real GDP, real income, employment, industrial production, and wholesale-retail sales.
Example:
The recession of the early 1990s contributed to public dissatisfaction and impacted the 1992 presidential election.
same sex marriage
Legally recognized marriage between two people of the same sex.
Example:
The debate over same sex marriage became a central social and legal issue in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.
savings and loans industry
A type of financial institution that traditionally specialized in accepting savings deposits and making mortgage loans, which faced a major crisis in the 1980s.
Example:
The collapse of the savings and loans industry in the late 1980s required a massive government bailout, costing taxpayers billions.
school desegregation
The process of ending the separation of students by race in public schools, often mandated by court orders or federal legislation.
Example:
After Brown v. Board of Education, many communities struggled with the implementation of school desegregation, facing resistance and protests.
sexual revolution
A period of significant social change in the 1960s and 1970s that challenged traditional norms regarding sexuality, marriage, and gender roles.
Example:
The availability of birth control pills contributed significantly to the societal shifts associated with the sexual revolution.
space shuttle
A reusable spacecraft system operated by NASA from 1981 to 2011, designed to carry astronauts and payloads into Earth orbit.
Example:
The space shuttle program revolutionized space travel by allowing for repeated missions and the deployment of satellites.
stagflation
An economic condition characterized by slow economic growth (stagnation) and relatively high unemployment, accompanied by rising prices (inflation).
Example:
The 1970s saw widespread stagflation, making it difficult for families to afford goods while jobs were scarce.
supply-side economics
An economic theory that advocates for tax cuts and deregulation to stimulate economic growth by increasing the supply of goods and services.
Example:
Proponents of supply-side economics believe that lower taxes on businesses and the wealthy encourage investment and job creation.
the rich got richer and the poor got poorer
A common criticism of Reaganomics and similar economic policies, suggesting that they exacerbate income inequality.
Example:
After the implementation of certain tax policies, many observed that the rich got richer and the poor got poorer, leading to increased social stratification.
three-strikes-and-your-out
A sentencing policy, often included in crime bills, that mandates severe penalties, typically life imprisonment, for offenders convicted of a third felony.
Example:
The three-strikes-and-your-out rule led to a significant increase in the U.S. prison population, particularly impacting minority communities.
trade deficit
An economic measure that occurs when a country's imports exceed its exports, indicating that it is buying more goods and services from other countries than it is selling.
Example:
A large trade deficit can sometimes indicate a country's reliance on foreign goods or a lack of competitiveness in its domestic industries.
trickle down economics
A term, often used critically, to describe the theory that tax cuts and other benefits for corporations and the wealthy will eventually benefit the broader population through economic growth.
Example:
Critics of Reagan's policies often referred to them as trickle down economics, arguing that the benefits primarily stayed with the rich.
triple “drug cocktail”
A highly effective combination of antiretroviral drugs developed in the mid-1990s that significantly reduced the death rate and improved the quality of life for people with HIV/AIDS.
Example:
The development of the triple “drug cocktail” transformed AIDS from a rapidly fatal disease into a manageable chronic condition for many.
two shutdowns of the federal government
Periods in late 1995 and early 1996 when non-essential government operations ceased due to a budget impasse between President Clinton and the Republican-controlled Congress.
Example:
The two shutdowns of the federal government highlighted the intense partisan gridlock between the executive and legislative branches.