The Postwar Period and Cold War, 1945–1980

Demonstrating the power of peaceful resistance to challenge racial segregation

Highlighting the increasing militarization within civil rights groups during this era

Suggesting a preference for legislative reform over direct action in fighting racism

Emphasizing economic boycotts as the sole effective method against segregation

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Voting Rights Act of 1965

Plessy v. Ferguson

Emancipation Proclamation

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education (1971)

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978)

The movement would not have gained international attention and support.

The movement may have adopted more radical, violence-based strategies.

The movement would have ended earlier due to lack of leadership.

The Civil Rights Act would not have been passed at all.

The introduction of affirmative action policies within educational institutions.

Judicial advancements in civil rights from landmark Supreme Court rulings.

Desegregation efforts in American public schools during the Civil Rights Movement.

The emergence of African American political leadership in the late 20th century.

In response to her participation in civil rights protests.

To enforce the desegregation of public schools as mandated by court order.

As a measure following the enactment of the Civil Rights Act.

To protect her during the implementation of the Voting Rights Act.

Stokely Carmichael during his tenure with SNCC before advocating Black Power

Martin Luther King Jr., as part of SCLC's broader civil rights strategy

Malcolm X through his newly formed Organization of Afro-American Unity

COFO, an umbrella organization including SNCC, CORE, NAACP, SCLC

The Equal Pay Act of 1963

The Civil Rights Act of 1964

The Voting Rights Act of 1965

The Fair Housing Act of 1968

Emphasizing economic independence over legal equality

Black nationalism instead of integration

Prioritizing pan-Africanism as opposed to American civil rights

Advocating armed self-defense rather than nonviolence

A notable decrease in public support for civil rights movements following the letter's publication.

An increased focus on armed resistance as the leading strategy within the civil rights movement after the critique.

The realization that peaceful protests could immediately end segregation practices.

Gaining support from sympathetic individuals who are resistant to direct action.