Glossary
Agora
In ancient Greek cities, a public open space used for assemblies and markets. It served as the civic, social, and commercial center of the city-state.
Example:
The Agora in Athens was not just a marketplace but also a vital hub for political discourse and philosophical debate.
Amarna Style
A revolutionary artistic style that emerged during the reign of Akhenaten in ancient Egypt, characterized by a more naturalistic, elongated, and curvilinear depiction of the human form, often showing intimacy.
Example:
The relief of 'Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and Three Daughters' exemplifies the distinctive Amarna style with its fluid lines and tender family portrayal.
Ankh
An ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic symbol representing 'life.' It is a cross with a loop at the top, frequently depicted in the hands of deities.
Example:
In the 'Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and Three Daughters' relief, the sun's rays terminate in ankhs, symbolizing the life-giving power of the god Aton.
Archaic Smile
A slight, enigmatic smile observed on the faces of Greek sculptures from the Archaic period. It is thought to be a convention to indicate that the figure is alive.
Example:
Despite the solemn function of the grave marker, the Anavysos Kouros displays a subtle archaic smile, adding a touch of vitality.
Atrium
The central open-roofed courtyard in an ancient Roman house. It served as the main reception area and often contained a shallow pool (impluvium) to collect rainwater.
Example:
Upon entering the 'House of the Vettii', visitors would first step into the atrium, a grand space open to the sky.
Ben-ben
A pyramidal stone, a sacred object in ancient Egyptian mythology, representing the primordial mound from which the world was created. It influenced the shape of pyramids and obelisks.
Example:
The shape of the Great Pyramids at Giza is thought to be inspired by the ben-ben stone, symbolizing creation and rebirth.
Book of the Dead
A collection of ancient Egyptian funerary texts, spells, and illustrations, intended to guide the deceased through the underworld and into the afterlife. It was often written on papyrus scrolls.
Example:
The 'Last Judgement of Hunefer' is a famous illustration from a Book of the Dead, detailing the soul's journey and judgment.
Bouleuterion
In ancient Greece, a building that housed the council (boule) of citizens. It was where political decisions were debated and made.
Example:
The city's governing body convened in the bouleuterion to discuss laws and civic matters.
Canopic Jars
Containers used by ancient Egyptians during the mummification process to store and preserve the viscera (internal organs) of the deceased. Each jar was dedicated to a specific deity.
Example:
During the mummification ritual, the liver, lungs, stomach, and intestines were carefully placed into four canopic jars.
Cella
The main inner room of a temple, especially in ancient Greek or Roman architecture, where the cult statue of the deity was housed. In Mesopotamian ziggurats, it refers to the innermost chamber at the top.
Example:
Worshippers would approach the cella of the temple with reverence, knowing it contained the sacred image of the god.
Coffers
A series of sunken panels in the shape of a square, rectangle, or octagon in a ceiling, soffit, or dome. They are often decorative but also reduce the weight of the structure.
Example:
The interior of the Pantheon's dome is adorned with coffers, which not only add visual depth but also lighten the immense concrete structure.
Composite Figure
A mythical creature or being formed by combining the features of multiple animals or humans. These figures often hold symbolic or protective meanings.
Example:
The Sphinx, with its human head and lion's body, is a classic example of a composite figure in ancient Egyptian art.
Contrapposto
An Italian term meaning 'counterpose,' used in sculpture to describe a human figure standing with most of its weight on one foot, creating a naturalistic shift in the hips and shoulders. It suggests potential movement.
Example:
Polykleitos's Doryphoros is a seminal work demonstrating contrapposto, giving the figure a dynamic and lifelike stance.
Cuneiform
One of the earliest systems of writing, developed by the Sumerians in Mesopotamia. It involved wedge-shaped marks pressed into clay tablets.
Example:
The ancient laws of Hammurabi were inscribed in cuneiform script on a large basalt stele, making them publicly accessible.
Doric Order
One of the three classical orders of ancient Greek architecture, characterized by sturdy, fluted columns with plain, cushion-like capitals and no base. It is known for its simplicity and strength.
Example:
The Parthenon on the Acropolis is a prime example of a temple built in the Doric order, conveying a sense of monumental solidity.
Engaged Columns
Columns that are attached to a wall and project partly from its surface. Unlike freestanding columns, they are not structural but serve as decorative elements.
Example:
The Colosseum features engaged columns on its exterior, visually articulating the different levels of the amphitheater.
Fresco
A painting technique in which pigments are applied to a wet plaster surface. As the plaster dries, the paint becomes an integral part of the wall, creating durable murals.
Example:
The vibrant interior walls of the 'House of the Vettii' in Pompeii are adorned with elaborate fresco paintings, preserving ancient Roman domestic art.
Frieze
A broad horizontal band of sculpted or painted decoration, especially on a wall or the entablature of a building. It often depicts narrative scenes.
Example:
The Parthenon's frieze famously depicted the Panathenaic Procession, a continuous narrative band encircling the cella.
Graywacke
A type of sandstone, often dark in color, used as a sculptural material in ancient Egypt. Its hardness made it suitable for durable monuments.
Example:
The Palette of King Narmer, a significant artifact depicting the unification of Egypt, was carved from sturdy graywacke.
Hellenistic Period
The period of ancient Greek history and art from the death of Alexander the Great (323 BCE) to the rise of the Roman Empire (31 BCE). It is characterized by increased emotionalism, drama, and realism in art.
Example:
The 'Seated Boxer' and 'Winged Victory of Samothrace' are iconic works from the Hellenistic Period, showcasing a departure from the calm idealism of the Classical era.
Hierarchy of Scale
An artistic convention in which the most important figures in a composition are depicted as larger than less important ones. This visually communicates social or divine status.
Example:
In many ancient Near Eastern reliefs, the king is depicted using hierarchy of scale, appearing significantly larger than his subjects or enemies.
Horror Vacui
Latin for 'fear of empty space,' a characteristic of art where the entire surface is filled with details and figures, leaving little or no blank areas. It creates a sense of density and dynamism.
Example:
The 'Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus' exemplifies horror vacui, with its densely packed figures and chaotic battle scene covering every inch of the marble surface.
Hypostyle Hall
A large hall with a roof supported by a dense forest of columns. This architectural feature was common in ancient Egyptian temples, creating a sense of grandeur and mystery.
Example:
The Temple of Amun-Re at Karnak features an immense hypostyle hall, where towering columns create a dramatic and awe-inspiring space.
Idealized
Representing something as perfect or better than in reality. In art, it refers to figures or forms that conform to a standard of beauty or perfection, often transcending individual flaws.
Example:
Many Greek sculptures, like the Doryphoros, present an idealized human form, embodying principles of perfect proportion and beauty.
Ionic Order
One of the three classical orders of ancient Greek architecture, characterized by slender, fluted columns with volute (scroll-like) capitals and a base. It is more ornate than the Doric order.
Example:
The Temple of Athena Nike on the Acropolis, with its elegant scroll-like capitals, is a beautiful example of the Ionic order.
Ka Statue
In ancient Egyptian belief, a statue intended to serve as a vessel for the 'ka' (life force or spirit) of the deceased. It provided a place for the spirit to reside in the afterlife.
Example:
The 'Seated Scribe' is believed to be a ka statue, ensuring the scribe's essence could endure and receive offerings in the tomb.
Kore
An archaic Greek statue of a standing draped young female. These figures often hold offerings and also exhibit the 'archaic smile.'
Example:
The Peplos Kore, with her elegant drapery and gentle expression, represents the female counterpart to the male kouros figures.
Kouros
An archaic Greek statue of a standing nude young male. These figures typically have a rigid, frontal pose, often with one foot slightly forward and an 'archaic smile.'
Example:
The Anavysos Kouros stands as a powerful grave marker, embodying the idealized male form of the Archaic period.
Krater
A large ancient Greek bowl used for mixing wine and water. Kraters were often elaborately decorated with narrative scenes.
Example:
The Niobides Krater is a magnificent example of Greek vase painting, depicting a dramatic mythological narrative.
Lamassu
An Assyrian protective deity, often depicted as a composite creature with the head of a human, the body of a lion or bull, and eagle wings. They typically guarded palace entrances.
Example:
The colossal lamassu figures, with their five legs, stood as formidable guardians at the gates of Sargon II's citadel, symbolizing royal power.
Mosaic
A picture or pattern produced by arranging together small pieces of colored glass, stone, or other materials. Mosaics were commonly used for floors and walls in Roman art.
Example:
The 'Alexander Mosaic', depicting a dramatic battle scene, was originally a floor mosaic in a Roman house, showcasing incredible detail and artistry.
Non-idealized (Realistic)
Representing subjects as they appear in real life, including imperfections and individual characteristics. This approach emphasizes naturalism over perfection.
Example:
The 'Seated Scribe' is notable for its non-idealized depiction, showing a more naturalistic and less perfect representation of the human form compared to royal portraits.
Oculus
A circular opening, especially one at the apex of a dome. In Roman architecture, it served as a light source and a symbolic connection to the heavens.
Example:
The Pantheon's massive dome is famously illuminated by its central oculus, allowing a single shaft of light to move across the interior throughout the day.
Panathenaic Way
The ceremonial road that ran through the Athenian Agora and up to the Acropolis. It was used for the Panathenaic Procession, a major religious festival.
Example:
During the festival, the grand procession would move along the Panathenaic Way, culminating in offerings at the Parthenon.
Patrician
A member of the upper class or aristocracy in ancient Rome. Patricians held significant political and social power.
Example:
The 'Head of a Roman Patrician' sculpture embodies the Roman reverence for age, wisdom, and experience within the ruling class.
Peplos
A simple, heavy woolen garment worn by women in ancient Greece, typically draped and fastened at the shoulders. It is characteristic of Archaic female statues.
Example:
The Peplos Kore is named for the distinctive peplos dress she wears, a common attire for women in ancient Greece.
Red-figure Technique
A style of ancient Greek vase painting where figures are left in the natural reddish color of the clay, while the background is painted black. Details are added with fine black lines.
Example:
The Niobides Krater showcases the red-figure technique, allowing for greater detail and naturalism in the depicted forms compared to earlier styles.
Registers
Horizontal bands or sections used to organize narrative scenes in ancient art. They help to tell a story sequentially or to separate different levels of a composition.
Example:
The intricate carvings on the Egyptian tomb walls were organized into clear registers, guiding the viewer through the deceased's journey to the afterlife.
Stele
An upright stone slab or pillar, often carved with inscriptions or reliefs, used as a monument or grave marker. It typically commemorates an event or individual.
Example:
The famous Law Code of Hammurabi is carved onto a tall basalt stele, serving as a public display of legal authority.
Stoa
In ancient Greek architecture, a long, freestanding portico or covered walkway, often with columns on one side and a wall on the other. Stoas provided shelter and public space.
Example:
Philosophers and citizens would gather in the stoa of the Athenian Agora to discuss ideas and conduct business.
Sunken Relief
A type of relief sculpture where the image is carved below the original surface of the stone, with the highest point of the image being level with or below the surface. It creates sharp shadows.
Example:
Many of the carvings in Akhenaten's temples utilized sunken relief, allowing for crisp outlines and strong contrasts in the bright Egyptian sun.
Terra Cotta
A type of earthenware, a clay-based unglazed or glazed ceramic, typically reddish-brown in color. It was widely used in ancient Etruscan and Roman art for sculpture and architectural decoration.
Example:
The 'Sarcophagus of the Spouses' is a remarkable Etruscan work crafted from terra cotta, allowing for expressive and detailed figures.
Tholos
A circular building, often a temple or a tomb, in ancient Greek architecture. It typically features a circular colonnade.
Example:
The tholos in the Athenian Agora served as a dining hall for members of the city council, a unique circular structure amidst rectangular buildings.
Triclinium
A formal dining room in an ancient Roman or Etruscan house, typically featuring three couches arranged in a U-shape around a low table. It was a space for banquets and social gatherings.
Example:
The 'Tomb of the Triclinium' is named for the painted scenes within, depicting lively banquets reminiscent of a Roman triclinium.
Twisted Perspective
A convention of representation in which part of a figure is shown in profile and another part of the same figure is shown frontally. This allows for a more comprehensive view of the subject.
Example:
Ancient Egyptian paintings often utilize twisted perspective, showing a figure's head in profile but their torso frontally, to convey all essential features.
Veristic Style
A Roman artistic style that emphasizes extreme realism and naturalism, often highlighting individual features, wrinkles, and signs of age. It was particularly popular for portraits of patricians.
Example:
The 'Head of a Roman Patrician' is a prime example of the veristic style, capturing every detail of the elder's weathered face.
Votive Figures
Small statues, often made of gypsum with shell and limestone inlay, placed in temples by worshippers in ancient Mesopotamia. They served as stand-ins for the patrons, offering continuous prayer.
Example:
The large, wide-eyed votive figures from Sumerian temples convey a sense of perpetual devotion and awe.
Wet Drapery
A sculptural technique where fabric appears to cling to the body as if wet, revealing the underlying anatomical forms. It creates a sense of movement and sensuality.
Example:
The 'Winged Victory of Samothrace' masterfully uses wet drapery to convey the goddess's powerful movement and the force of the wind against her body.
Ziggurat
A massive stepped tower, typically Mesopotamian, with a temple or shrine on its summit. It served as a sacred mountain, bringing the temple closer to the heavens.
Example:
The ancient city of Ur was dominated by its impressive ziggurat, a towering structure that connected the earthly realm with the divine.