Glossary
Black Death
A devastating pandemic of bubonic plague that swept across Europe, Asia, and North Africa in the mid-14th century, causing massive population decline and social upheaval.
Example:
The widespread death and social upheaval caused by the Black Death led to a shift in artistic themes, often focusing on mortality, suffering, and religious penitence.
Byzantine Empire
The Eastern Roman Empire, founded in 330 CE with its capital at Constantinople, known for its distinct artistic style characterized by mosaics, icons, and grand architecture.
Example:
The Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, with its massive dome and shimmering mosaics, is a prime example of the monumental architecture and intricate artistry of the Byzantine Empire.
Conquistadors
Spanish conquerors and explorers who played a key role in the colonization of the Americas during the 16th century, often destroying indigenous art and imposing European forms.
Example:
The conquistadors often melted down indigenous gold artifacts for their monetary value, destroying countless pre-Columbian artworks that held immense cultural and artistic significance.
Eastern Orthodoxy
The form of Christianity practiced in the Byzantine Empire and Eastern Europe, emphasizing icons and a distinct liturgical tradition.
Example:
The use of elaborate, gold-backed Eastern Orthodoxy icons for veneration, believed to be windows to the divine, is a hallmark of this religious tradition.
Edict of Milan
A proclamation in 313 AD by Roman Emperors Constantine I and Licinius that granted religious freedom throughout the Roman Empire, effectively ending the persecution of Christians.
Example:
The Edict of Milan allowed early Christians to openly construct large basilicas, like Old St. Peter's, without fear of imperial reprisal.
Great Schism
The formal split in 1054 CE between the Eastern (Orthodox) and Western (Catholic) Christian Churches, leading to distinct theological and artistic traditions.
Example:
The Great Schism solidified the divergent paths of Eastern Orthodox icons versus Western Catholic devotional images, influencing their respective artistic developments for centuries.
Horseshoe arches
Arches that are wider at the base than at the springing line, characteristic of Islamic architecture, particularly prominent in structures in Spain.
Example:
The mesmerizing interior of the Great Mosque of Córdoba is filled with rows of elegant horseshoe arches, creating a sense of infinite, rhythmic space.
Humanism
An intellectual movement during the Renaissance that emphasized human potential, achievements, and classical learning over purely theological concerns, influencing art's focus on human experience.
Example:
Michelangelo's David, depicting the idealized human form and celebrating individual strength and beauty, is a powerful embodiment of humanism.
Hundred Years' War
A series of conflicts from 1337 to 1453 between the English and French monarchies, primarily over control of the French throne, impacting art production and patronage.
Example:
The prolonged conflict of the Hundred Years' War led to widespread destruction and a temporary decline in large-scale artistic commissions in affected regions, as resources were diverted to warfare.
Iconoclastic Controversy
An 8th and 9th-century debate within the Byzantine Empire over the veneration or destruction of religious images (icons), leading to periods of widespread destruction of artworks.
Example:
During the Iconoclastic Controversy, many precious religious artworks were destroyed by those who believed their veneration was idolatrous, leaving gaps in the historical record.
Iconoclasts
Opponents of the use and veneration of religious images (icons) during the Iconoclastic Controversy, advocating for their destruction due to concerns about idolatry.
Example:
The iconoclasts believed that the creation and worship of religious images violated the biblical prohibition against idolatry, leading them to smash or deface countless artworks.
Iconophiles
Supporters of the use and veneration of religious images (icons) during the Iconoclastic Controversy, believing them to be legitimate aids to worship.
Example:
The iconophiles argued that icons served as windows to the divine, aiding believers in their spiritual contemplation and connecting them to the holy figures depicted.
Icons
Religious images, typically painted on wooden panels, used in Eastern Orthodox worship as aids to devotion and believed to embody spiritual presence.
Example:
The Virgin of Vladimir is a famous icon revered for its spiritual power and emotional depth, often carried in processions and believed to offer protection.
Italian Renaissance
A period of artistic and cultural 'rebirth' in Italy (c. 14th-16th centuries) characterized by a renewed interest in classical antiquity, humanism, and naturalism.
Example:
Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa exemplifies the mastery of perspective, chiaroscuro, and humanistic focus central to the Italian Renaissance, celebrating individual expression.
Northern Renaissance
An artistic movement in Northern Europe (c. 15th-16th centuries) that, while influenced by classical ideals, emphasized detailed naturalism, religious piety, and the innovative use of oil painting.
Example:
Jan van Eyck's Arnolfini Portrait showcases the meticulous detail, rich symbolism, and luminous oil painting techniques characteristic of the Northern Renaissance.
Patronage
The financial support provided by individuals, institutions, or governments for artists and the creation of art, significantly influencing artistic output and themes.
Example:
The Medici family's extensive patronage was crucial for funding many of the masterpieces of the Italian Renaissance, allowing artists like Michelangelo and Botticelli to thrive.
Peace of the Church
The period following the Edict of Milan when Christianity was legally tolerated, allowing its open practice and the flourishing of Christian art.
Example:
During the Peace of the Church, Christian symbols and narratives could openly appear in catacombs and newly constructed churches, moving beyond clandestine imagery.
Protestant Reformation
A 16th-century religious movement initiated by Martin Luther that challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and led to the establishment of Protestant denominations, significantly impacting religious art.
Example:
The Protestant Reformation led to a decline in large-scale religious commissions in some areas, shifting artistic focus towards secular subjects or more modest, didactic devotional works.
Protestant altarpieces
Altarpieces created for Protestant churches, often differing from Catholic ones by emphasizing biblical narratives, didacticism, or a less ornate style, reflecting new theological priorities.
Example:
Lucas Cranach the Elder's Law and Gospel is a notable example of a Protestant altarpiece, visually explaining Lutheran theology through contrasting scenes of salvation and damnation.
Spanish Conquest
The colonization of the Americas by Spain beginning in the late 15th century, leading to the imposition of Spanish culture and religion on indigenous populations and profound changes in art.
Example:
The Spanish Conquest resulted in the destruction of many pre-Columbian artworks and the forced adaptation of indigenous artistic practices to Christian themes, often under duress.
Syncretism
The blending of different cultural, religious, or artistic traditions, often seen in colonial contexts where indigenous and European styles merge to create new forms.
Example:
The Virgin of Guadalupe, incorporating indigenous symbolism and a dark-skinned Virgin into a Christian image, is a powerful example of syncretism in colonial Mexican art.
Umayyad Caliphate
An Islamic caliphate that ruled from 661 to 750 CE, extending its influence into Spain (al-Andalus) and leaving a significant architectural and artistic legacy.
Example:
The Great Mosque of Córdoba, with its distinctive double arches and intricate mosaics, was a major architectural achievement under the Umayyad Caliphate in Spain.