South, East, and Southeast Asian Art, 300 BCE–1980 CE

Brick

Marble

Sandstone

Wood

Incorporation of bronze into structural components

Sandstone blocks joined without mortar

Utilization of wooden frameworks to support heavy roofs

Single-stone-carving method for entire temples

Emphasis on agricultural fertility rites necessitated the presence of terracotta statuettes depicting various ranks of military personnel alongside livestock to safeguard crops and ensure sustenance beyond the mortal realm.

Terracotta figures represented celebratory tokens of victory over warring states, thus demonstrating power through triumphant poses and martial attire, symbolic of the domination of foes defeated during the course of the unification process.

Ritual significance of funerary art dictated the life-like depiction of soldiers equipped with full armor, chariots, and horses to ensure the emperor's protection and guidance in the afterlife, according to ancient Chinese belief systems adhered to by the likewise dynastic ruler.

Anecdotal evidence suggests artisans were motivated primarily by experimental curiosity in crafting hyper-realistic sculptures in clay, with no deeper religious intentions beyond mere representation.

Ritualistic significance

Aesthetic preferences for minimalism

Economic trade expansion

Technological advancements in kiln use

Quill

Sponge

Stylus

Brush

Introduction of cobalt blue underglaze from Persia

Celadon glaze with intricate inlay designs

Use of porcelain clay found only near Kaesong

High-temperature firing techniques borrowed from China

The introduction of esoteric Buddhism in the middle to late Heijō-kyō period recontextualized Vairocana Buddha as representative of universal enlightenment rather than emblematic of a specific royal lineage, shifting the spiritual landscape of the nation.

A shift in focus toward military expansion and security under successive governments diminished religious significances in favor of representations of secular power and heroism, echoing the ascendant samurai class in feudalistic society dynamics.

Persistent invasions from outsiders, notably the Korean Peninsula and Mongol incursions, renewed appreciation for the protective qualities associated with the Vairocana Buddha, as it radiated compassionate strength and resilience in adversity, helping to unify the people.

Political centralization under imperial control during the Nara era projected Vairocana Buddha as the embodiment of state authority, while decentralization during the later Heijō periods saw it become a symbol of local clerical autonomy shared amongst regional temples.

Etching onto metal plates

Screen printing with stencils

Engraving on stone slabs

Carving and printing from woodblocks

Vietnam

Laos

Cambodia

Thailand

They guide devotees through a visual narrative of Buddha's teachings while circumambulating the structure.

They function as astronomical charts aligning with celestial events significant to local mythology.

They record historical victories of the Sailendra Dynasty over their adversaries in Java.

They act purely decorative elements showcasing Javanese craftsmen skills without religious context.