Glossary
Ad Hominem
A logical fallacy that attacks the character, motive, or other attribute of a person instead of addressing the substance of their argument.
Example:
Dismissing a politician's economic plan by saying 'You can't trust her ideas; she's never run a business!' is an ad hominem attack.
Analogical Reasoning
A line of reasoning that compares two seemingly dissimilar things to highlight their similarities and make a point.
Example:
Arguing that 'Running a marathon is like writing a novel; both require discipline, endurance, and a clear vision' uses analogical reasoning.
Anecdotes
Brief personal stories or examples used to illustrate a point, often appealing to emotion or providing a relatable scenario.
Example:
Sharing an anecdote about a student's struggle with online learning can personalize an argument about educational policy.
Bandwagon
A logical fallacy that suggests an idea or action is valid or good because many people believe it or are doing it.
Example:
The advertisement that claims 'Millions of people are switching to our brand, so you should too!' is using the bandwagon fallacy.
Causal Reasoning
A line of reasoning that argues one event or action directly leads to another, establishing a cause-and-effect relationship.
Example:
Claiming that increased screen time among teenagers leads to decreased attention spans is an example of causal reasoning.
Cause-Effect
A rhetorical strategy that explores the relationship between events or actions and their resulting consequences, explaining why things happen.
Example:
An essay analyzing the cause-effect relationship between social media use and mental health would explore how one influences the other.
Circular Reasoning
A logical fallacy where the argument's premise assumes the truth of its conclusion, essentially restating the claim as evidence.
Example:
Arguing 'This book is excellent because it's the best book ever written' demonstrates circular reasoning.
Claims
These are the main points an author is trying to make, serving as the central assertions of an argument.
Example:
A writer's central claim might be that mandatory community service should be implemented in high schools.
Credibility (of evidence)
The trustworthiness and reliability of a source or piece of evidence, indicating its likelihood of being accurate and unbiased.
Example:
Evidence from a peer-reviewed scientific journal typically has high credibility.
Deductive Reasoning
A type of reasoning that moves from a general principle or premise to a specific conclusion.
Example:
If you know that all mammals have fur, and a cat is a mammal, then concluding that a cat has fur is an example of deductive reasoning.
Evidence
Information, facts, data, or examples used to support a claim and persuade an audience.
Example:
A strong argumentative essay always backs its claims with compelling evidence.
Expert Testimony
Opinions, statements, or insights from individuals recognized as authorities or specialists in a particular field.
Example:
Citing a renowned economist's analysis of market trends is an example of using expert testimony.
Fact Claim
An assertion that can be proven true or false through verifiable evidence.
Example:
The statement 'The average global temperature has risen by 1 degree Celsius over the last century' is a fact claim.
Facts (as evidence)
Verifiable pieces of information that can be proven true and are used to support an argument.
Example:
The number of registered voters in the last election is a fact that could be used as evidence.
False Dilemma
A logical fallacy that presents only two options or outcomes as the only possibilities, when in reality more options exist.
Example:
The statement 'You either support the new policy, or you're against progress' presents a false dilemma.
Flawed Reasoning (Fallacy)
Errors in logic that weaken an argument or make it unsound, often used to mislead an audience.
Example:
An argument that relies on a logical fallacy can be easily dismantled by a critical reader.
Hasty Generalization
A logical fallacy that draws a broad conclusion based on insufficient or unrepresentative evidence.
Example:
After meeting one rude person from a particular city, concluding that 'Everyone from that city is unfriendly' is a hasty generalization.
In-text Citations
Brief references within the body of an essay that indicate the source of quoted, paraphrased, or summarized information.
Example:
After a direct quote, including the author's last name and page number in parentheses is a common form of in-text citation.
Inductive Reasoning
A type of reasoning that moves from specific observations or examples to a general conclusion.
Example:
Observing that every student who used the new study guide improved their test scores, and concluding that the guide is effective for all students, is inductive reasoning.
Lines of Reasoning
The logical path an author takes to connect their evidence to their claim, demonstrating how they intend to convince the audience.
Example:
A scientist might use a line of reasoning that moves from experimental data to a general scientific principle.
Narrative
A rhetorical strategy that tells a story to illustrate a point, engage the reader emotionally, or provide context.
Example:
A writer might use a personal narrative about overcoming adversity to inspire readers and support a broader argument about resilience.
Plagiarism
The act of taking someone else's work or ideas and passing them off as one's own without proper attribution.
Example:
Submitting an essay copied from the internet without citing the source is a clear case of plagiarism.
Policy Claim
An argument about what should be done, proposing a course of action or a change in policy.
Example:
The argument 'Schools should offer more vocational training programs' is a policy claim.
Relevance (of evidence)
The degree to which evidence directly relates to and supports the specific claim being made.
Example:
When arguing for stricter environmental regulations, data on local air quality would have high relevance.
Signal Phrases
Words or phrases used to introduce quoted, paraphrased, or summarized information from a source, smoothly integrating it into your own writing.
Example:
Using signal phrases like 'According to Dr. Lee' or 'As the study suggests' helps integrate evidence effectively.
Statistics
Numerical data or quantitative information used to provide empirical support for a claim.
Example:
Presenting statistics on rising sea levels can powerfully support an argument about climate change.
Straw Man
A logical fallacy that misrepresents or exaggerates an opponent's argument to make it easier to attack.
Example:
If someone argues for stricter gun control, and their opponent responds, 'So you want to take away everyone's guns and leave us defenseless?' that's a straw man fallacy.
Sufficiency of Evidence
The quality of having enough relevant, credible, and specific evidence to convincingly support a claim.
Example:
To prove a complex claim, a writer must ensure the sufficiency of evidence, not just present a few isolated examples.
Value Claim
A judgment about what is good or bad, right or wrong, or desirable or undesirable.
Example:
Arguing that 'Public art enriches a city's cultural landscape' is an example of a value claim.
Works Cited Page
A comprehensive list at the end of an academic paper that provides full bibliographic information for all sources cited within the text.
Example:
Students must include a Works Cited page to give credit to all external sources used in their research paper.