Glossary
95 Theses
A list of propositions written by Martin Luther in 1517, which criticized the sale of indulgences and other practices of the Catholic Church.
Example:
The widespread dissemination of Luther's 95 Theses, aided by the printing press, quickly spread his reformist ideas across Germany.
Baroque Art
A highly ornate and extravagant artistic style that emerged in the early 17th century, used by the Catholic Church and powerful monarchs to express grandeur and emotional intensity.
Example:
The dramatic lighting and dynamic compositions of Caravaggio's works exemplify Baroque Art, designed to evoke strong emotional responses from viewers.
Catholic Reformation (Counter-Reformation)
The period of Catholic resurgence initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation, involving internal reforms and efforts to combat the spread of Protestantism.
Example:
The Catholic Reformation (Counter-Reformation) saw the Church reaffirm its doctrines while also addressing corruption and promoting new missionary efforts.
Church of England
The national church of England, established by Henry VIII, which maintained many Catholic traditions but rejected papal authority.
Example:
The creation of the Church of England allowed Henry VIII to annul his marriage and seize monastic lands, significantly increasing royal power.
Council of Trent
A series of ecumenical councils held by the Catholic Church between 1545 and 1563 to address the challenges of the Protestant Reformation and enact internal reforms.
Example:
The Council of Trent played a pivotal role in defining Catholic doctrine for the next four centuries, clarifying beliefs on sacraments, salvation, and the role of clergy.
Dutch Revolt (Eighty Years War)
A prolonged struggle (1568-1648) by the Calvinist-dominated northern provinces of the Low Countries against Spanish Habsburg rule, leading to the independence of the Dutch Republic.
Example:
The Dutch Revolt (Eighty Years War) was a testament to the enduring power of religious and national identity in resisting imperial control.
Edict of Nantes
A decree issued by King Henry IV of France in 1598, granting substantial rights to Huguenots in a predominantly Catholic country, effectively ending the French Wars of Religion.
Example:
The Edict of Nantes was a landmark act of religious toleration, though it was later revoked, leading to renewed persecution of Protestants in France.
French Wars of Religion
A prolonged period of civil conflict in France (1562-1598) between Catholics and Huguenots, often intertwined with political power struggles.
Example:
The St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre was a brutal episode during the French Wars of Religion, demonstrating the extreme religious animosity of the era.
Henry VIII
The King of England who initiated the English Reformation by separating the Church of England from papal authority, primarily for political and personal reasons.
Example:
Henry VIII's desire for a male heir and control over church lands led him to break with Rome and establish himself as the head of the Church of England.
Huguenots
French Protestants, primarily followers of Calvinism, who faced significant persecution in Catholic France during the 16th and 17th centuries.
Example:
Despite being a minority, the Huguenots were a powerful and influential group in France, leading to intense religious and political clashes.
Jesuits
A new religious order, the Society of Jesus, founded by Ignatius of Loyola, dedicated to education, missionary work, and defending the Catholic faith.
Example:
The Jesuits became highly influential in spreading Catholicism globally and establishing schools that emphasized rigorous intellectual and spiritual training.
John Calvin
A French theologian and reformer who developed Calvinism, a major branch of Protestantism, emphasizing predestination and the sovereignty of God.
Example:
The city of Geneva became a center for Protestant thought under the influence of John Calvin, attracting reformers from across Europe.
Mannerism
An artistic style that emerged in the late Renaissance, characterized by elongated forms, exaggerated poses, and dramatic lighting, often conveying emotional intensity.
Example:
El Greco's paintings, with their distorted figures and vibrant colors, are prime examples of the Mannerism style, reflecting a departure from Renaissance ideals of harmony.
Martin Luther
A German monk and theologian who initiated the Protestant Reformation by challenging the practices and doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church.
Example:
Martin Luther famously nailed his 95 Theses to a church door, sparking a theological debate that would forever alter Christianity.
Patriarchal social structures
Societal systems in which men hold primary power and authority in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege, and control of property.
Example:
Despite the religious upheavals of the Reformation, patriarchal social structures largely persisted, with women's roles remaining primarily domestic.
Peace of Augsburg
A treaty signed in 1555 that officially recognized Lutheranism within the Holy Roman Empire, allowing princes to choose either Catholicism or Lutheranism for their territories.
Example:
The Peace of Augsburg established the principle of 'cuius regio, eius religio' (whose realm, his religion), granting rulers the right to determine their state's religion.
Peace of Westphalia
A series of peace treaties signed in 1648 that ended the Thirty Years' War, establishing a new political order in Europe based on sovereign states.
Example:
The Peace of Westphalia is often considered a foundational moment in international relations, solidifying the concept of state sovereignty and non-interference in internal affairs.
Predestination
A theological doctrine, central to Calvinism, which states that God has already determined who will be saved (the 'elect') and who will be damned.
Example:
Followers of Calvin often believed in predestination, which gave them a strong sense of divine purpose and moral discipline.
Printing Press
An invention that revolutionized the spread of information by allowing for the rapid and inexpensive production of printed materials.
Example:
The invention of the printing press was crucial for the rapid dissemination of Luther's ideas, enabling the Reformation to spread far beyond Wittenberg.
Protestant Reformation
A 16th-century religious movement that began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church but resulted in the creation of new Protestant denominations.
Example:
The Protestant Reformation fundamentally reshaped the religious map of Europe, leading to centuries of conflict and the rise of new Christian faiths.
Religious Diversity (Pre-Reformation)
The presence of various religious groups, including Roman Catholics, Orthodox Christians, and Jewish and Muslim communities, across Europe before the Protestant Reformation.
Example:
Despite the dominance of Catholicism in Western Europe, pockets of Religious Diversity (Pre-Reformation) existed, such as the significant Jewish communities in various cities.
Salvation through faith alone (Sola Fide)
A core Protestant doctrine asserting that salvation is granted by God's grace through faith in Jesus Christ, rather than through good works or sacraments.
Example:
Luther's emphasis on salvation through faith alone (Sola Fide) directly challenged the Catholic Church's teaching on the necessity of sacraments and good deeds for salvation.
Schmalkaldic Wars
A series of conflicts between the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and the Schmalkaldic League of Protestant princes within the Holy Roman Empire.
Example:
The Schmalkaldic Wars highlighted the deep religious and political divisions within the Holy Roman Empire, ultimately leading to a temporary compromise.
Scripture as ultimate authority (Sola Scriptura)
A Protestant principle holding that the Bible is the sole infallible source of Christian doctrine and practice, superseding church tradition or papal decrees.
Example:
The Protestant insistence on scripture as ultimate authority (Sola Scriptura) led to increased literacy as people sought to read the Bible for themselves.
Thirty Years War
A devastating European conflict (1618-1648) primarily fought in the Holy Roman Empire, involving religious, dynastic, territorial, and commercial rivalries.
Example:
The Thirty Years War decimated populations and reshaped the balance of power in Europe, leading to the decline of the Holy Roman Empire's influence.
Witchcraft Persecution
A period of increased fear and systematic trials of individuals accused of witchcraft, particularly prevalent in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries.
Example:
The heightened religious tensions and social anxieties of the Reformation era contributed to a surge in witchcraft persecution across many European regions.