Glossary
Balance of Power
A political theory and foreign policy goal where states aim to prevent any single state from becoming too dominant, often by forming alliances and counter-alliances.
Example:
After the Treaty of Westphalia, European nations frequently formed coalitions, such as the Grand Alliance against Louis XIV, to maintain the balance of power and prevent French hegemony.
Battle of Vienna (1683)
A decisive battle where a coalition of European forces, primarily Polish and Holy Roman Empire troops, successfully repelled the Ottoman Empire's last major attempt to expand into Central Europe.
Example:
The victory at the Battle of Vienna marked a critical turning point, halting the Ottoman Empire's westward expansion and signaling the beginning of its long retreat from Europe.
Dutch War (1672-1678)
A conflict initiated by Louis XIV's invasion of the Spanish Netherlands, aiming to expand French territory, but ultimately met resistance from a coalition of European powers.
Example:
During the Dutch War, Louis XIV's forces initially swept through the Netherlands, but the Dutch, aided by England and Sweden, managed to push back, forcing France to settle for less territory than desired.
Gustavus Adolphus
The King of Sweden (1611-1632) and a brilliant military innovator who transformed the Swedish army into a modern fighting force, introducing new tactics and a professional standing army.
Example:
Gustavus Adolphus's use of mobile artillery and disciplined infantry formations during the Thirty Years' War made Sweden a dominant military power and showcased the effectiveness of the new military revolution tactics.
Habsburgs
A powerful European dynasty that ruled vast territories, including Austria, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire, for centuries, often at the center of European political and religious conflicts.
Example:
The Habsburgs were a dominant force in European politics, constantly vying for power with France and struggling to maintain control over their diverse territories, from the Spanish Netherlands to the Austrian heartlands.
Hohenzollerns
A German noble family that rose to prominence as the ruling dynasty of Brandenburg-Prussia, transforming it into a powerful and militaristic state in the 17th and 18th centuries.
Example:
The Hohenzollerns systematically built up Prussia's military and bureaucracy, laying the foundation for its emergence as a major European power, particularly after gaining recognition as a kingdom in the Treaty of Utrecht.
Holy Roman Empire (Decline)
A multi-ethnic complex of territories in Central Europe that, after the Thirty Years' War and the Peace of Augsburg, became increasingly fragmented and lost central authority.
Example:
Often described as 'neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire,' the Holy Roman Empire's decline was evident in its inability to unify its hundreds of constituent states, paving the way for the rise of Austria and Prussia.
Louis XIV
Known as the 'Sun King,' he was the absolute monarch of France from 1643 to 1715, whose expansionist policies and lavish court at Versailles defined an era of French dominance.
Example:
Louis XIV's ambition to expand France's borders and establish a Bourbon dynasty in Spain led to a series of costly wars that ultimately united much of Europe against him.
Military Revolution
A period of significant changes in military technology, organization, and tactics from the 16th to 18th centuries, leading to larger, more professional armies and increased state power.
Example:
The Military Revolution saw the widespread adoption of gunpowder weapons, mobile artillery, and sophisticated fortifications, fundamentally transforming warfare and requiring states to develop larger bureaucracies and tax systems to fund these new armies.
Nine Years' War (1688-1697)
A major conflict in which the Grand Alliance (England, Spain, Holy Roman Empire) formed to resist Louis XIV's continued expansionist policies in Europe.
Example:
The Nine Years' War saw William of Orange, now King of England, lead a formidable coalition to check French power, demonstrating the growing commitment to the balance of power principle.
Ottoman Empire (Decline)
A vast Islamic empire that, after its peak in the 16th century, experienced a long period of internal problems, military stagnation, and territorial losses, earning it the moniker 'Sick Man of Europe'.
Example:
Despite its initial military prowess, the Ottoman Empire's failure to modernize its army and economy after the Battle of Vienna contributed to its gradual decline and increasing instability over centuries.
Peace of Augsburg (1555)
A treaty that officially recognized Lutheranism in the Holy Roman Empire, allowing princes to choose either Catholicism or Lutheranism as the official religion of their territories.
Example:
The Peace of Augsburg introduced the principle of 'cuius regio, eius religio' (whose realm, his religion), which, while ending immediate religious wars, contributed to the Holy Roman Empire's lasting religious and political fragmentation.
Poland (18th Century Decline)
Refers to the weakening and eventual disappearance of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth due to a weak elected monarchy, the liberum veto, and partitions by neighboring powers.
Example:
The inability of the Polish nobility to agree on reforms, often due to the liberum veto, left Poland vulnerable to its powerful neighbors, leading to its complete partition by Russia, Prussia, and Austria by 1795.
Standing Army
A permanent, professional army maintained by a state, rather than being raised only in times of war, which became a hallmark of the Military Revolution.
Example:
The development of a standing army allowed states like Sweden under Gustavus Adolphus to maintain constant readiness and enforce central authority, but also required significant financial resources through taxation.
Tercio Infantry
A mixed infantry formation developed by the Spanish Habsburgs, combining pikemen, musketeers, and arquebusiers, which dominated European battlefields in the 16th and early 17th centuries.
Example:
The formidable Tercio Infantry formations were a testament to Spanish military innovation, allowing them to project power across their vast empire, though their effectiveness waned with further advancements in gunpowder tactics.
Treaty of Utrecht (1713)
A series of peace treaties that ended the War of Spanish Succession, confirming Philip V as King of Spain but explicitly prohibiting the union of the Spanish and French crowns.
Example:
The Treaty of Utrecht significantly reshaped the European map, granting Austria the Spanish Netherlands and solidifying Prussia's status as a kingdom, while ensuring no single power dominated the continent.
Treaty of Westphalia (1648)
A series of peace treaties that ended the Thirty Years' War, establishing the principle of state sovereignty and marking a shift from religious to political motivations in international relations.
Example:
The Treaty of Westphalia fundamentally reshaped the European political map, allowing rulers to determine the religion of their own states, thereby reducing the influence of the Holy Roman Emperor.
War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714)
A major European conflict triggered by the death of the childless Spanish King Charles II, as European powers feared the union of the French and Spanish thrones under a Bourbon monarch.
Example:
The War of Spanish Succession was a continent-wide struggle to prevent a Franco-Spanish super-state, ultimately resulting in a compromise that kept the two crowns separate.
William of Orange
A Dutch stadtholder who became King of England (as William III) after the Glorious Revolution, playing a crucial role in forming coalitions against Louis XIV's France.
Example:
William of Orange's strategic brilliance was evident in his ability to unite disparate European powers into the Grand Alliance, effectively checking the expansionist ambitions of Louis XIV during the Nine Years' War.