Glossary
A Vindication of the Rights of Woman
A foundational feminist text by Mary Wollstonecraft (1792) arguing that women are not naturally inferior to men but are made so by lack of education.
Example:
A Vindication of the Rights of Woman challenged the prevailing societal norms that confined women to domestic roles and denied them intellectual development.
Absolutist Monarchy
A form of government where the monarch holds supreme, unchecked power, often justified by divine right.
Example:
Louis XIV's reign in France is a prime example of an absolutist monarchy, where the king's power was considered limitless.
Adam Smith
A Scottish economist and philosopher known as the 'Father of Capitalism' for his theories on free markets and the 'invisible hand'.
Example:
Adam Smith's economic theories advocated for minimal government intervention in the economy, believing that individual self-interest would ultimately benefit society.
Baron de Montesquieu
A French political philosopher who advocated for the separation of powers and checks and balances within government to prevent tyranny.
Example:
Baron de Montesquieu's ideas were instrumental in the design of the United States Constitution, particularly its division of government into three branches.
Capitalism
An economic system characterized by private ownership of the means of production, free markets, and the pursuit of profit.
Example:
Adam Smith's ideas in The Wealth of Nations provided the theoretical framework for modern capitalism, emphasizing supply, demand, and competition.
Checks and Balances
A system where each branch of government has some measure of influence over the other branches and may choose to block procedures of the other branches.
Example:
The presidential veto of a bill passed by Congress is an example of checks and balances, preventing the legislative branch from unilaterally enacting laws.
Constitutional Monarchy
A form of government in which a monarch's power is limited by a constitution, often sharing power with a parliament.
Example:
After the Glorious Revolution, England developed into a constitutional monarchy, where the monarch's power was constrained by laws and the rights of Parliament.
David Hume
A Scottish Enlightenment philosopher, historian, and essayist known for his philosophical empiricism and skepticism.
Example:
David Hume's skepticism challenged the certainty of cause and effect, arguing that human knowledge is based on experience and habit rather than absolute reason.
Deism
A belief in a God who created the universe but does not interfere with its daily workings, often seen as a 'watchmaker' God.
Example:
Many Enlightenment thinkers, including Voltaire, embraced deism, believing that reason and observation of the natural world could reveal God's existence, but rejected organized religion's rituals and dogmas.
Denis Diderot
A French philosopher and writer who was a prominent figure during the Enlightenment and co-founder of the *Encyclopédie*.
Example:
Denis Diderot dedicated decades to compiling and editing the Encyclopédie, aiming to disseminate knowledge and challenge traditional authority.
Encyclopédie
A monumental 18th-century French encyclopedia, edited by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert, that compiled knowledge from various Enlightenment thinkers.
Example:
The Encyclopédie was a revolutionary work that spread Enlightenment ideas across Europe, covering everything from science and technology to philosophy and politics.
Enlightenment
An 18th-century intellectual and cultural movement emphasizing reason, science, and individualism over tradition and superstition.
Example:
The Enlightenment sparked new ideas about government, leading to revolutions that challenged the old order across Europe and the Americas.
Immanuel Kant
A German philosopher who synthesized rationalism and empiricism, exploring the limits of human understanding and the nature of morality.
Example:
Immanuel Kant's work on 'critique of pure reason' explored how the human mind structures experience, influencing subsequent philosophy.
Individualism
A moral, political, or social philosophy emphasizing the moral worth of the individual, a key theme of the Enlightenment.
Example:
The focus on individualism during the Enlightenment led to demands for personal freedoms and rights, such as freedom of speech and religion.
Invisible Hand
A metaphor introduced by Adam Smith to describe the unintended social benefits of individual self-interested actions in a free market.
Example:
Smith argued that the 'invisible hand' of the market, driven by supply and demand, naturally guides resources to their most efficient use without government interference.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
A Genevan philosopher who argued that society corrupts individuals and that a 'social contract' is a necessary evil for collective good.
Example:
Jean-Jacques Rousseau's concept of the 'general will' suggested that true liberty comes from obedience to laws that reflect the collective good of the community.
John Locke
An English philosopher who argued that people are born with natural rights and that government's purpose is to protect these rights.
Example:
John Locke's ideas on government by consent and the right to revolution profoundly influenced the American Declaration of Independence.
Laissez-faire
An economic doctrine advocating for minimal government intervention in the economy, allowing free markets to operate without regulation.
Example:
The concept of laissez-faire became a cornerstone of classical liberalism, promoting free trade and competition.
Letters on the English
A book by Voltaire (1733) praising England's constitutional monarchy, religious tolerance, and civil liberties, contrasting them with French absolutism.
Example:
Voltaire's Letters on the English served as a powerful critique of the French political and social system by highlighting the perceived superiority of the English model.
Leviathan
A seminal work by Thomas Hobbes (1651) that outlines his theory of the social contract and the necessity of an absolute sovereign.
Example:
In Leviathan, Hobbes used the metaphor of a giant sea monster to represent the all-powerful state needed to control human nature.
Mary Wollstonecraft
An English writer and philosopher considered one of the first feminists, who argued for equal rights and education for women.
Example:
Mary Wollstonecraft's arguments for women's rationality and their right to education laid foundational ideas for future feminist movements.
Natural Rights
Inherent rights possessed by all humans from birth, including life, liberty, and property, which governments are obligated to protect.
Example:
John Locke argued that governments derive their legitimacy from protecting the natural rights of their citizens, and if they fail, the people have the right to revolt.
Progress
The belief that human societies can improve over time through the application of reason and scientific knowledge, a core optimistic theme of the Enlightenment.
Example:
The Enlightenment's emphasis on progress fueled optimism that humanity could overcome ignorance and tyranny, leading to a better future.
Reason
The capacity for consciously making sense of things, applying logic, and adapting practices based on new information, central to Enlightenment thought.
Example:
Enlightenment thinkers believed that human reason could solve societal problems and lead to progress, rather than relying solely on faith or tradition.
Religious Tolerance
The acceptance of different religious beliefs and practices, a principle strongly advocated by Enlightenment thinkers like Voltaire.
Example:
The push for religious tolerance during the Enlightenment aimed to end centuries of religious wars and persecution, promoting peaceful coexistence.
Separation of Powers
The division of governmental power into distinct branches (legislative, executive, judicial) to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful.
Example:
The separation of powers ensures that no single part of the government can dominate, as seen in a system where the legislature makes laws, the executive enforces them, and the judiciary interprets them.
Skepticism
A philosophical approach that questions the possibility of certainty in knowledge, particularly challenging traditional religious doctrines and established truths.
Example:
The rise of skepticism during the Enlightenment encouraged thinkers to demand empirical proof and question long-held beliefs about the world and religion.
Social Contract
An agreement among members of a society to cooperate for social benefits, for example by sacrificing some individual freedom for state protection.
Example:
Rousseau's idea of the social contract posited that legitimate political authority comes from the consent of the governed, who agree to abide by the 'general will.'
Tabula Rasa
The concept, proposed by John Locke, that individuals are born with a 'blank slate' mind, and all knowledge comes from experience.
Example:
The idea of tabula rasa suggested that human character is shaped by environment and education, rather than being predetermined.
The Wealth of Nations
Adam Smith's seminal work (1776) that describes the principles of capitalism, including the division of labor, free markets, and the 'invisible hand'.
Example:
The Wealth of Nations became a foundational text for economic thought, influencing policies that promoted industrial growth and international trade.
Thomas Hobbes
An English philosopher who argued that humans are naturally selfish and require a strong, absolute government to maintain order.
Example:
Thomas Hobbes believed that without a powerful sovereign, society would descend into a 'war of all against all,' making life 'solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.'
Voltaire
A French Enlightenment writer and philosopher known for his advocacy of civil liberties, including freedom of religion and expression.
Example:
Voltaire's famous phrase, 'I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it,' encapsulates his commitment to free speech.