Glossary
Agricultural Revolution
A period of significant agricultural innovation and increased food production in Europe, preceding and enabling the Industrial Revolution.
Example:
The Agricultural Revolution introduced new farming techniques like crop rotation, allowing for a surplus of food and a growing population that could then move to cities for factory work.
Bourgeoisie
The middle class, particularly in the context of industrialization, referring to factory owners, merchants, and professionals who controlled capital and means of production.
Example:
The wealthy factory owners and bankers of the 19th century were part of the rising bourgeoisie, often living in stark contrast to the conditions of the working class.
Concert of Europe
A system of dispute resolution adopted by the major conservative powers of Europe after the Napoleonic Wars, aimed at maintaining peace and the status quo.
Example:
The Concert of Europe intervened in several revolutionary outbreaks in the early 19th century, seeking to suppress liberal and nationalist movements.
Conservatives
A political ideology that generally favors tradition, established institutions, and gradual change, often resisting radical reforms.
Example:
After the Napoleonic Wars, European conservatives sought to restore monarchies and maintain the social order, fearing the spread of revolutionary ideas.
Crystal Palace
A massive, innovative glass and iron structure built in Hyde Park, London, to house The Great Exhibition of 1851.
Example:
The Crystal Palace was a marvel of engineering for its time, symbolizing the architectural possibilities of the Industrial Age.
Factory Act (1833)
A landmark British law that regulated child labor in textile factories, setting limits on working hours and requiring basic education.
Example:
The Factory Act of 1833 was one of the first significant pieces of legislation aimed at improving the harsh working conditions faced by children in industrial Britain.
First Industrial Revolution
The initial phase of industrialization, primarily in Great Britain, characterized by the shift from manual labor to machine-based manufacturing, especially in textiles, iron, and steam power.
Example:
During the First Industrial Revolution, the invention of the power loom dramatically increased textile production, transforming the way clothes were made.
Hungry 40s
A period in the 1840s marked by widespread food shortages, economic depression, and social unrest across Europe.
Example:
The widespread poverty and famine of the Hungry 40s contributed to the revolutionary fervor that swept across Europe in 1848.
Ideologies
Systems of ideas and ideals, especially those that form the basis of economic or political theory and policy.
Example:
The social upheaval of industrialization gave rise to new ideologies like socialism, which offered alternative visions for society.
Industrial Capitalism
An economic system characterized by private ownership of the means of production, the pursuit of profit, and the organization of labor in factories.
Example:
The rise of large factories and joint-stock companies during the 19th century exemplified the growth of Industrial Capitalism across Europe.
Irish Potato Famine
A devastating period of mass starvation, disease, and emigration in Ireland from 1845 to 1850, caused by a potato blight.
Example:
The Irish Potato Famine led to the death of over a million people and forced millions more to emigrate, profoundly impacting Irish society and demographics.
Liberals
A political ideology emphasizing individual rights, constitutional government, free markets, and limited government intervention.
Example:
Liberals in the 19th century often advocated for reforms like freedom of speech, religious toleration, and expanded suffrage for property owners.
Mechanization
The process of replacing human or animal labor with machines, a key characteristic of the Industrial Revolution.
Example:
The mechanization of agriculture, through inventions like the seed drill, significantly increased crop yields and reduced the need for farm laborers.
Proletariat
The industrial working class, who owned no means of production and had to sell their labor for wages.
Example:
Karl Marx famously predicted that the proletariat would eventually rise up against the capitalist system due to their exploitation.
Putting-out system
A pre-industrial system of production where merchants provided raw materials to rural households, who then produced finished goods at home.
Example:
Before factories, a merchant might use the putting-out system to have families spin wool into yarn and weave it into cloth in their own cottages.
Revolutions of 1848
A series of widespread liberal and nationalist uprisings that swept across Europe, challenging conservative governments and demanding reforms.
Example:
The Revolutions of 1848 saw citizens in Paris, Berlin, and Vienna take to the streets, demanding constitutional governments and greater political freedoms.
Russian Revolution (1905)
A wave of mass political and social unrest that spread through vast areas of the Russian Empire, leading to significant constitutional reforms.
Example:
The defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and widespread discontent fueled the Russian Revolution of 1905, forcing Tsar Nicholas II to grant a constitution and establish a Duma.
Second Industrial Revolution
A phase of rapid industrialization from the late 19th to early 20th centuries, characterized by advancements in steel, electricity, chemicals, and mass production.
Example:
The invention of the light bulb and the development of the automobile were key innovations of the Second Industrial Revolution, transforming daily life and industry.
Socialists
A political and economic ideology advocating for collective or governmental ownership and control of the means of production and distribution of goods.
Example:
Socialists emerged in response to the harsh conditions of industrialization, proposing solutions like workers' cooperatives and state-provided welfare to achieve greater equality.
State sponsorship
Financial or political support provided by a government to promote specific industries or economic development.
Example:
Many continental European nations relied on state sponsorship, such as government loans for railway construction, to catch up to Britain's industrial lead.
The Great Exhibition (1851)
An international exhibition held in London's Crystal Palace, showcasing industrial, technological, and artistic achievements from around the world.
Example:
The Great Exhibition of 1851 was a grand display of British industrial prowess, demonstrating its status as the world's leading manufacturing power.
Urbanization
The rapid growth and migration of populations from rural areas to cities, driven by the availability of factory jobs during industrialization.
Example:
The promise of work in textile mills led to massive urbanization in cities like Manchester, which saw its population explode in the 19th century.