Glossary
Albert Einstein
A German-born theoretical physicist who developed the theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics, profoundly changing scientific understanding of space and time.
Example:
Albert Einstein's theory of special relativity, with its famous equation E=mc², fundamentally altered the Newtonian understanding of the universe.
Anti-Semitism
Hostility to, prejudice toward, or discrimination against Jews.
Example:
The Dreyfus Affair in France exposed deep-seated anti-Semitism within European society, leading to widespread public debate and division.
Camilo di Cavour
A leading figure in the Italian unification movement, serving as Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia and employing shrewd diplomacy and military alliances to expand his state.
Example:
Camilo di Cavour strategically allied with France to provoke war with Austria, a crucial step in unifying northern Italy.
Charles Darwin
A British naturalist who developed the theory of evolution by natural selection, proposing that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors.
Example:
Charles Darwin's groundbreaking work, On the Origin of Species, revolutionized biology and challenged traditional views on creation.
Congress System
A conservative international relations system established after the Napoleonic Wars to maintain peace and the balance of power in Europe through regular meetings of the Great Powers.
Example:
The Congress System aimed to prevent another major European conflict by having nations like Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Britain consult on international issues.
Dual Monarchy
The governmental structure of Austria-Hungary established in 1867, which recognized Hungary as a separate kingdom with its own parliament and administration, but shared a common monarch, foreign policy, and military with Austria.
Example:
The creation of the Dual Monarchy was an attempt by the Habsburgs to appease Hungarian nationalist demands and stabilize their multi-ethnic empire.
Markets (in the context of imperialism)
In the context of imperialism, 'markets' refer to the territories or populations in colonized regions that served as sources of raw materials for European industries and as consumers for manufactured goods from the imperial powers.
Example:
British textile manufacturers viewed India as a vast market for their finished cotton goods, while also extracting raw cotton from the subcontinent.
Modern Art
A broad term encompassing a period of artistic experimentation and innovation from the late 19th to mid-20th centuries, characterized by a departure from traditional forms and an emphasis on individual expression and new ways of seeing.
Example:
The vibrant colors and fragmented forms of Cubism, pioneered by Picasso, marked a radical break from previous artistic conventions and are a hallmark of Modern Art.
Napoleon III
The nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, who ruled France as President and then Emperor, using a blend of authoritarianism and popular appeal, and often co-opting nationalist sentiment.
Example:
Napoleon III modernized Paris and initiated ambitious public works projects, aiming to bolster his popularity and strengthen the French state.
Nation
A large group of people united by common descent, history, culture, or language, inhabiting a particular country or territory.
Example:
Despite not having a unified state for centuries, Italians saw themselves as a distinct nation sharing a common heritage and language.
Nationalism
A powerful ideology emphasizing loyalty and devotion to a particular nation, often based on shared culture, language, or history, and the belief that one's nation is superior to others.
Example:
The fervent desire for self-determination among ethnic groups in the Austro-Hungarian Empire was a clear manifestation of nationalism.
New Imperialism
A period of rapid colonial expansion by European powers and the United States, primarily in Africa and Asia, from the late 19th to early 20th centuries, driven by economic, political, and ideological motives.
Example:
The 'Scramble for Africa,' where European nations rapidly divided and colonized nearly the entire continent, is the most prominent example of New Imperialism.
Otto von Bismarck
The conservative Prussian statesman who masterminded the unification of Germany through a series of wars and diplomatic maneuvers, becoming its first Chancellor.
Example:
Otto von Bismarck's 'Blood and Iron' speech underscored his belief that military strength and industrial power were essential for achieving German unification.
Positivism
A philosophical system developed by Auguste Comte, asserting that the only authentic knowledge is scientific knowledge, which is based on empirical observation and logical deduction.
Example:
Adherents of Positivism believed that societal problems could be solved by applying scientific methods to human behavior and social organization.
Race (as perceived in the context of nationalism)
In the context of 19th-century nationalism, 'race' often referred to a perceived shared ancestry or ethnic identity, which was sometimes used to define national belonging or justify exclusion and discrimination.
Example:
The concept of a pure 'Aryan race' was tragically manipulated by extreme nationalists to define German identity and persecute minorities.
Realism
An artistic and literary movement that emerged in the mid-19th century, seeking to depict subjects as they appear in everyday life, without idealization or romantic embellishment.
Example:
Gustave Courbet's paintings, which often portrayed ordinary laborers and unvarnished scenes, exemplified the commitment of Realism to depicting life 'as it is'.
Romanticism
An artistic, literary, and intellectual movement originating in the late 18th century, characterized by an emphasis on emotion, individualism, the glorification of nature, and the past.
Example:
Lord Byron's passionate poetry and Eugène Delacroix's dramatic paintings are quintessential examples of Romanticism in their celebration of intense feeling and heroic struggle.
Sigmund Freud
An Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst, emphasizing the role of the unconscious mind.
Example:
Sigmund Freud's theories about the id, ego, and superego introduced revolutionary ideas about the irrational forces driving human behavior.
Social Darwinism
A misapplication of Darwin's theory of natural selection to human society, used to justify social inequality, racism, and imperialism by claiming that certain individuals or groups are inherently superior.
Example:
Proponents of Social Darwinism argued that the success of powerful nations in colonizing weaker ones was simply a natural outcome of 'survival of the fittest'.
Zionism
A political movement advocating for the establishment and development of a Jewish nation-state in the historical Land of Israel.
Example:
Theodor Herzl became a leading figure in Zionism, arguing for a Jewish homeland as a response to growing anti-Semitism in Europe.