Glossary
Accommodation
The cognitive process of modifying existing schemas or creating new ones to incorporate new information that doesn't fit.
Example:
When a child learns that a whale is a mammal and not a fish, they are using accommodation to adjust their 'animal' schema.
Algorithms
Step-by-step procedures or formulas that guarantee a correct solution to a problem if followed precisely.
Example:
Following a detailed recipe to bake a cake is an example of using an algorithm.
Assimilation
The cognitive process of incorporating new information into existing schemas without changing the schema itself.
Example:
A child who sees a zebra for the first time and calls it a 'horse' is demonstrating assimilation.
Availability Heuristic
A mental shortcut where we estimate the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind, often influenced by vividness or recency.
Example:
After seeing many news reports about shark attacks, you might overestimate the danger of swimming in the ocean due to the availability heuristic.
Concepts
Mental categories that group similar objects, events, ideas, or people, helping us organize and understand the world.
Example:
The concept of 'fruit' allows you to easily categorize apples, bananas, and oranges together.
Creativity
The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas or solutions.
Example:
An artist who invents a completely new style of painting demonstrates high creativity.
Decision-Making
The cognitive process of choosing between different options or courses of action.
Example:
Choosing which college to attend after receiving multiple acceptance letters is a significant act of decision-making.
Divergent Thinking
A type of thinking that explores multiple possible solutions or ideas to a problem, often associated with creativity and brainstorming.
Example:
Brainstorming as many uses as possible for a common brick, beyond building, is an exercise in divergent thinking.
Executive Functions
A set of higher-order cognitive processes that control and regulate other cognitive abilities and behaviors, including planning, working memory, and inhibitory control.
Example:
Successfully planning and executing a complex group project requires strong executive functions.
Framing
The way an issue or information is presented, which can significantly influence people's perceptions, judgments, and decisions.
Example:
A doctor saying a treatment has a '95% success rate' instead of a '5% failure rate' is an example of framing.
Functional Fixedness
A cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used, hindering creative problem-solving.
Example:
Not realizing you can use a shoe as a hammer because you are stuck in functional fixedness.
Gambler's Fallacy
The mistaken belief that past independent random events influence the probability of future independent random events.
Example:
Believing that a coin is 'due' to land on heads after a series of tails is an example of the gambler's fallacy.
Heuristics
Mental shortcuts or 'rules of thumb' that allow for quick and efficient problem-solving and decision-making, though they don't guarantee a correct solution.
Example:
When trying to guess a password, trying common birthdates first is an example of using a heuristic.
Judgments
The process of evaluating information and forming opinions or conclusions.
Example:
After reviewing all the evidence, the detective made a judgment about the suspect's guilt.
Mental Set
The tendency to approach a new problem using a strategy or solution that worked successfully in the past, even if it's not the most efficient or appropriate for the current situation.
Example:
If you always solve a certain type of math problem one way, you might struggle with a slightly different version because of your mental set.
Priming
The process by which exposure to one stimulus influences a response to a subsequent stimulus, often without conscious awareness.
Example:
Hearing the word 'food' might prime you to think of 'pizza' when asked to name a dish.
Problem-Solving
The cognitive process of finding solutions to challenges or obstacles.
Example:
Successfully assembling a complex IKEA furniture piece requires effective problem-solving skills.
Prototypes
The best or most typical example of a particular concept, often serving as a mental benchmark.
Example:
For many, a robin might be the prototype of a 'bird,' while a penguin is less so.
Representativeness Heuristic
A mental shortcut where we judge the likelihood of an event by comparing it to an existing prototype or stereotype.
Example:
Assuming someone who wears glasses and reads a lot is a librarian, even if they are a construction worker, is an example of the representativeness heuristic.
Schemas
Mental frameworks or blueprints that organize and interpret information, influencing our perceptions and expectations.
Example:
Your 'birthday party' schema includes expectations like cake, presents, and singing 'Happy Birthday'.
Sunk-Cost Fallacy
The tendency to continue investing resources (time, money, effort) into a project or decision because of the resources already invested, even if it's no longer rational to do so.
Example:
Finishing a terrible movie at the cinema just because you already paid for the ticket is an example of the sunk-cost fallacy.
Thinking
The mental manipulation of information, involving processes like reasoning, problem-solving, and decision-making.
Example:
When you try to figure out the best route to school, you are engaging in thinking.