Glossary
Automatic Processing
Encoding of information that occurs without conscious effort or attention, often for routine or well-learned tasks.
Example:
Remembering what you ate for breakfast this morning, without actively trying to memorize it, is an example of automatic processing.
Automatic processing
Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, or of well-learned information.
Example:
Walking to your classroom without consciously thinking about each step is an example of automatic processing.
Central Executive
The component of the working memory model that acts as a 'boss,' controlling attention, coordinating information from other components, and managing cognitive tasks.
Example:
While multitasking, like cooking dinner and talking on the phone, your central executive is busy directing your attention and managing both activities.
Cocktail party effect
The phenomenon where a person can focus on one conversation in a noisy environment while still being able to detect personally significant information, like their name, from other conversations.
Example:
At a loud party, you're chatting with a friend, but suddenly your ears perk up when you hear someone across the room mention your name, illustrating the cocktail party effect.
Deep processing
Encoding information based on its meaning, leading to a more durable and easily retrievable memory.
Example:
When studying for a history exam, relating historical events to current societal issues is a form of deep processing.
Divided attention
The ability to focus on multiple tasks or stimuli simultaneously, often leading to reduced performance on each task.
Example:
Trying to text a friend while listening to a lecture often results in poor comprehension of both, due to divided attention.
Echoic Memory
A type of sensory memory that briefly stores auditory information, lasting for a few seconds.
Example:
If someone asks you a question and you say 'What?' but then immediately recall what they said, you've used your echoic memory.
Echoic memory
A type of sensory memory that briefly stores auditory information, lasting for about 3-4 seconds.
Example:
If someone asks you 'What did I just say?' and you can still 'hear' their last few words in your mind, that's your echoic memory at work.
Effortful Processing
Encoding of information that requires conscious attention and deliberate effort, typically for new or complex material.
Example:
Studying for an AP Psychology exam by actively reviewing notes and creating flashcards is a clear example of effortful processing.
Effortful processing
A type of encoding that requires conscious attention and deliberate effort to process and remember information.
Example:
Learning the complex rules of chess for the first time requires significant effortful processing.
Elaborative Rehearsal
A memory strategy that involves connecting new information to existing knowledge or personal experiences, leading to deeper processing and better retention.
Example:
Instead of just memorizing a definition, you create a vivid story that incorporates the new term, which is an example of elaborative rehearsal.
Episodic Buffer
A component of the working memory model that integrates information from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory into a coherent, unified representation.
Example:
When you recall a complex scene from a movie, combining the dialogue (phonological), the visuals (visuospatial), and your understanding of the plot (long-term memory), your episodic buffer is at work.
Episodic Memory
A type of explicit memory that stores specific personal experiences and events, often tied to a particular time and place.
Example:
Recalling the details of your last birthday party, including who was there and what gifts you received, relies on your episodic memory.
Episodic memory
A type of explicit memory that stores personally experienced events, including the context in which they occurred.
Example:
Remembering your high school graduation ceremony, including who you were with and how you felt, is an example of episodic memory.
Explicit Memory
Memories that can be consciously recalled and verbally explained, often involving facts or events.
Example:
Remembering the capital of France is an example of explicit memory because you can consciously retrieve and state that information.
Explicit memory
Conscious, intentional recollection of factual information, previous experiences, and concepts.
Example:
Recalling the definition of 'operant conditioning' for your psychology exam is an example of explicit memory.
Flashbulb memory
A clear, vivid, and seemingly accurate memory of an emotionally significant and surprising event.
Example:
Many people have a flashbulb memory of exactly where they were and what they were doing when they heard about a major historical event like 9/11.
Iconic Memory
A type of sensory memory that briefly stores visual information, lasting only about a quarter of a second.
Example:
When you quickly glance at a page and then close your eyes, the brief mental snapshot you retain is due to your iconic memory.
Iconic memory
A type of sensory memory that briefly stores visual information, lasting for about 1/4 to 1/2 second.
Example:
The brief afterimage you see when a camera flash goes off is stored in your iconic memory.
Implicit Memory
Memories that are unconscious and difficult to verbalize, influencing behavior without conscious awareness.
Example:
Even if you can't explain how you do it, your ability to ride a skateboard demonstrates implicit memory.
Implicit memory
Unconscious memory that influences behavior without conscious recall, often related to skills and procedures.
Example:
Riding a bicycle or tying your shoelaces without consciously thinking about the steps involved demonstrates implicit memory.
Levels of Processing Model
A model suggesting that the depth at which information is processed influences how well it is remembered, with deeper processing leading to stronger memories.
Example:
According to the levels of processing model, understanding the meaning of a concept will lead to better recall than simply repeating its definition.
Long-Term Memory
A vast and relatively permanent storage system for information, capable of holding an immense amount of data for extended periods.
Example:
Your memories of childhood, your knowledge of history, and your ability to speak a language are all stored in your long-term memory.
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
A persistent strengthening of synaptic connections between neurons, resulting from frequent activation, which is believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
Example:
When you repeatedly practice a new dance move, the neural pathways involved become stronger through long-term potentiation, making the move easier to perform over time.
Long-term memory
A memory system with an unlimited capacity that stores information relatively permanently, from minutes to a lifetime.
Example:
Your ability to recall events from your childhood or the capital of France relies on your long-term memory.
Metacognition
The awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes, including how one learns and remembers.
Example:
A student who realizes that flashcards are more effective for their learning style than rereading notes is demonstrating strong metacognition.
Multi-Store Model
A model proposing that memory flows through three distinct stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Example:
The idea that information first enters a brief sensory register before potentially moving to a temporary short-term store and then a more permanent long-term store is central to the multi-store model.
Phonemic Level
An intermediate level of processing that focuses on the sound properties of information, such as rhyming or pronunciation.
Example:
Determining if two words, like 'cat' and 'hat,' rhyme involves processing at the phonemic level.
Phonemic processing
A type of shallow processing that involves encoding the auditory characteristics of information, focusing on the sound of words.
Example:
Trying to remember a new vocabulary word by repeating its pronunciation aloud is an example of phonemic processing.
Phonological Loop
A component of the working memory model responsible for processing and temporarily storing verbal and auditory information, like an 'inner voice.'
Example:
Repeating a new phone number to yourself until you can write it down engages your phonological loop.
Procedural Memory
A type of implicit memory that stores 'how-to' knowledge, including motor skills, habits, and learned procedures.
Example:
The muscle memory involved in playing a musical instrument, like the guitar, is a prime example of procedural memory.
Prospective Memory
Memory for future actions or intentions, involving remembering to perform a task at a specific time or in response to a cue.
Example:
Setting a mental reminder to email your teacher about an assignment before the deadline uses your prospective memory.
Prospective memory
Remembering to perform an action or intention at a specific time in the future.
Example:
Remembering to take your medication at 8 PM every night is an example of prospective memory.
Selective attention
The ability to focus conscious awareness on a particular stimulus while ignoring other irrelevant stimuli.
Example:
Despite the noisy cafeteria, you manage to focus intently on your friend's story, demonstrating selective attention.
Semantic Level
The deepest level of processing, focusing on the meaning of information and connecting it to existing knowledge.
Example:
When you try to understand why a historical event happened and relate it to current events, you are engaging in processing at the semantic level.
Semantic Memory
A type of explicit memory that stores general knowledge, facts, concepts, and meanings, independent of personal experience.
Example:
Knowing that a dog is a mammal or that 2 + 2 = 4 are examples of information stored in your semantic memory.
Semantic memory
A type of explicit memory that stores general knowledge, facts, concepts, and ideas independent of personal experience.
Example:
Knowing that Paris is the capital of France or that a dog is a mammal are examples of semantic memory.
Sensory Memory
The initial, very brief stage of memory that holds raw sensory information from the environment for a fraction of a second.
Example:
The fleeting afterimage you see when a camera flash goes off is stored in your sensory memory.
Sensory memory
The shortest-term element of memory, which briefly holds sensory information from the environment before it is either forgotten or transferred to short-term memory.
Example:
The fleeting image you see when a sparkler is waved in the dark is initially held in your sensory memory.
Shallow processing
Encoding information based on its surface characteristics, such as its appearance or sound, which typically leads to weaker memory retention.
Example:
Simply rereading notes without trying to understand the concepts is an example of shallow processing.
Short-Term Memory
A temporary storage system with limited capacity and duration, holding information that is currently being used or attended to.
Example:
Remembering a phone number just long enough to dial it before forgetting it demonstrates the limited capacity of short-term memory.
Short-term memory
A temporary storage system that holds a limited amount of information (about 7 +/- 2 items) for a brief period, typically around 20-30 seconds.
Example:
Remembering a new phone number just long enough to dial it before it fades from your mind uses your short-term memory.
Structural Level
The shallowest level of processing, focusing on the physical characteristics or appearance of information.
Example:
Noticing that a word is written in all capital letters, without considering its meaning, is processing at the structural level.
Structural processing
A type of shallow processing that involves encoding the visual characteristics of information, such as the font or capitalization of words.
Example:
Remembering that a key term was written in bold, red letters in your textbook is an example of structural processing.
Visuospatial Sketchpad
A component of the working memory model responsible for processing and temporarily storing visual and spatial information, like an 'inner eye.'
Example:
Mentally rotating a 3D object in your mind to see it from different angles uses your visuospatial sketchpad.
Working Memory Model
A model that describes a system for actively holding and manipulating information for a short period, acting as a mental workspace.
Example:
When you mentally calculate a tip at a restaurant, you are utilizing your working memory model to hold and process the numbers.