Glossary
Actor-Observer Bias
The tendency to attribute one's own actions to situational factors while attributing others' actions to their disposition or personality.
Example:
You might explain your own tardiness by blaming traffic, but assume a friend's tardiness is due to their inherent laziness, demonstrating the Actor-Observer Bias.
Attribution Theory
A theory that describes how individuals explain the causes of behavior and events, both their own and others'. It involves trying to understand the 'why' behind actions.
Example:
When your friend aces a test, you might use Attribution Theory to consider if it was due to their intelligence or an easy exam.
Attribution Theory
A theory explaining how individuals interpret and understand the causes of behavior, whether their own or others'. It focuses on determining if actions stem from internal (dispositional) or external (situational) factors.
Example:
When your friend aces a test, you might use Attribution Theory to consider if it's because they're naturally smart (internal) or if the test was just easy (external).
Attributions
The explanations or inferences people make about the causes of events, behaviors, or outcomes.
Example:
After spilling coffee, your attributions might range from 'I'm clumsy' to 'the cup was too full'.
Confirmation Bias
The tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses. It leads to ignoring contradictory evidence.
Example:
A person who believes in horoscopes might only remember the times their horoscope was accurate and forget all the times it wasn't, due to Confirmation Bias.
Dispositional (Internal) Attributions
Explanations for behavior that attribute it to a person's inherent traits, personality, or character.
Example:
Believing a classmate is always late because they are inherently disorganized is a Dispositional (Internal) Attribution.
Downward Social Comparison
Comparing oneself to someone who is perceived as inferior or worse off, often to boost one's own self-esteem.
Example:
Feeling better about your own financial situation after seeing someone struggling more than you is an example of Downward Social Comparison.
Explanatory Style
An individual's habitual way of explaining the causes of good and bad events in their life.
Example:
Someone's consistent tendency to blame themselves for failures reveals their Explanatory Style.
External Attribution
Explaining someone's behavior by attributing it to situational or environmental factors outside their control. This focuses on circumstances surrounding the individual.
Example:
If a usually punctual friend is late for coffee, you might make an External Attribution, assuming they got stuck in unexpected traffic.
External Locus of Control
The belief that external forces, such as fate, luck, or powerful others, are primarily responsible for the outcomes and events in one's life.
Example:
Someone who blames their unemployment on the economy rather than their job search efforts demonstrates an External Locus of Control.
False-Consensus Effect
The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. We assume our opinions are more common than they actually are.
Example:
If you love a niche band, you might experience the False-Consensus Effect by assuming most of your friends also know and appreciate their music.
Fundamental Attribution Error
The tendency to overestimate the impact of dispositional factors and underestimate the influence of situational factors when explaining the behavior of others.
Example:
Assuming a driver who cuts you off is a rude person, without considering they might be rushing to an emergency, is an example of the Fundamental Attribution Error.
Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)
The tendency to overestimate the impact of dispositional (personality) factors and underestimate the impact of situational factors when explaining other people's behavior. It's about blaming the person, not the circumstances.
Example:
Seeing a driver cut you off, you might immediately think they're a reckless person, committing the Fundamental Attribution Error by ignoring that they might be rushing to an emergency.
Halo Effect
A cognitive bias where an overall impression of a person (especially a positive one) influences the observer's feelings and thoughts about that person's character or properties. One positive trait can color all other perceptions.
Example:
If you find a new classmate very attractive, you might also assume they are intelligent, kind, and funny, even without evidence, demonstrating the Halo Effect.
Internal Attribution
Explaining someone's behavior by attributing it to their personal characteristics, traits, or disposition. This focuses on factors within the individual.
Example:
If a classmate always turns in assignments early, you might make an Internal Attribution that they are a highly organized and diligent person.
Internal Locus of Control
The belief that one's own actions, efforts, and decisions primarily determine the outcomes and events in their life.
Example:
A student who believes they can improve their grades by studying harder has an Internal Locus of Control.
Just-World Hypothesis
The belief that people get what they deserve, meaning good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people. This can lead to victim-blaming and overlooking systemic issues.
Example:
Someone might believe that a person experiencing homelessness must have made poor choices, demonstrating the Just-World Hypothesis by assuming their situation is deserved.
Locus of Control
An individual's belief about whether they control their own destiny and outcomes, or if external forces do.
Example:
Your general belief about whether your grades are a result of your effort or the difficulty of the teacher reflects your Locus of Control.
Mere Exposure Effect
The phenomenon where repeated exposure to a stimulus leads to increased liking for that stimulus.
Example:
Initially disliking a new song but growing to love it after hearing it frequently on the radio is an example of the Mere Exposure Effect.
Optimistic Style
An explanatory style where good events are attributed to internal, stable, and global causes, while bad events are attributed to external, unstable, and specific causes.
Example:
A student with an Optimistic Style might say, 'I got an A because I'm smart and always work hard, but I failed that one quiz because the questions were tricky.'
Person Perception
The process by which individuals form impressions and make judgments about other people.
Example:
When you meet someone new and quickly decide if you like them or not, you are engaging in Person Perception.
Pessimistic Style
An explanatory style where good events are attributed to external, unstable, and specific causes, while bad events are attributed to internal, stable, and global causes.
Example:
A student with a Pessimistic Style might say, 'I got an A because I got lucky, but I failed that quiz because I'm just not good at this subject and never will be.'
Placebo Effect
A phenomenon where a person experiences a real physiological or psychological benefit from an inactive substance or treatment, purely due to their belief in its effectiveness. It's a powerful example of the mind's influence.
Example:
A patient given a sugar pill for pain might report feeling better simply because they believe it's a powerful painkiller, illustrating the Placebo Effect.
Relative Deprivation
The feeling of being deprived of something to which one feels entitled, often arising from social comparisons with others who have more.
Example:
Feeling Relative Deprivation when your friend gets a new car, even though your current car is perfectly fine, because you feel you 'deserve' one too.
Self-Concept
An individual's overall perception of their own identity, abilities, and unique characteristics. It encompasses beliefs about oneself, including personal attributes and social roles.
Example:
A student who sees themselves as a 'math person' and a 'creative writer' has a well-developed Self-Concept regarding their academic strengths.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
A prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true, due to positive feedback between belief and behavior.
Example:
If a coach believes a player is naturally talented and gives them more opportunities, leading the player to excel, it's a Self-Fulfilling Prophecy.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
A phenomenon where a person's expectations about another person or situation lead them to act in ways that make those expectations come true. Our beliefs shape reality.
Example:
If a teacher expects a student to struggle, they might unconsciously give less support, leading the student to indeed perform poorly, fulfilling the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy.
Self-Serving Bias
The tendency to attribute one's successes to internal, dispositional factors and one's failures to external, situational factors.
Example:
When you win a game, you credit your skill, but when you lose, you blame the referee or bad luck, illustrating the Self-Serving Bias.
Self-Serving Bias
The tendency to attribute one's successes to internal, personal factors and one's failures to external, situational factors. It protects one's self-esteem.
Example:
After winning a video game, you might attribute it to your superior skill, but if you lose, you blame the lag or an unfair opponent, illustrating Self-Serving Bias.
Situational (External) Attributions
Explanations for behavior that attribute it to external factors, circumstances, or the environment.
Example:
Explaining a friend's bad mood by saying they had a tough day at work is a Situational (External) Attribution.
Social Comparison
The process of evaluating one's own abilities, opinions, and achievements by comparing oneself with others.
Example:
Deciding if your test score is good or bad by seeing how your classmates performed is an act of Social Comparison.
Upward Social Comparison
Comparing oneself to someone who is perceived as superior or better off, which can be motivating or detrimental to self-esteem.
Example:
A student comparing their grades to the top student in the class is engaging in Upward Social Comparison.