Glossary
Authority figure (obedience)
A factor influencing obedience, where individuals are more likely to obey commands from someone perceived as legitimate and powerful.
Example:
A soldier following orders from a commanding officer, even if they disagree, is an example of obedience to an authority figure.
Burnout
A state of emotional, mental, and physical exhaustion caused by prolonged or excessive stress, often related to one's work.
Example:
A student who feels constantly overwhelmed, lacks motivation, and is perpetually tired due to academic pressure might be experiencing burnout.
Bystander effect
The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other people are present, due to diffusion of responsibility.
Example:
If someone collapses in a busy street, people might walk past, assuming someone else will call for help, which is a classic example of the bystander effect.
Central route to persuasion
A persuasion method that involves careful consideration of arguments and evidence, leading to lasting attitude changes based on logic and reason.
Example:
When buying a new laptop, researching its processing speed, RAM, and battery life before making a decision is using the central route to persuasion.
Collectivistic cultures
Cultures that prioritize group harmony, interdependence, and the needs of the community over individual desires.
Example:
In Japan, the strong emphasis on group cohesion and loyalty to one's company or family exemplifies the characteristics of collectivistic cultures.
Deindividuation
A psychological state in which individuals lose self-awareness and restraint when in a group, leading to impulsive or uncharacteristic behavior.
Example:
During a large, anonymous protest, individuals might engage in behaviors they wouldn't normally consider, due to deindividuation.
Diffusion of responsibility
A phenomenon where individuals feel less personal accountability for their actions or inaction when others are present, assuming someone else will take responsibility.
Example:
In a crowded park, if someone drops their wallet, people might hesitate to pick it up, each assuming someone else will, illustrating diffusion of responsibility.
Door-in-the-face technique
A persuasion strategy where an extreme, unreasonable request is made and rejected, followed by a more moderate, desired request, which is then more likely to be accepted.
Example:
Asking your parents for a brand new car and, after they refuse, then asking for a ride to the mall, is using the door-in-the-face technique.
Evaluation apprehension
Concern about how others are evaluating one's performance or behavior, which can inhibit helping behavior in ambiguous situations.
Example:
A person might hesitate to perform CPR on someone in public, fearing they might do it incorrectly and be judged, due to evaluation apprehension.
False consensus effect
A cognitive bias where individuals overestimate the extent to which others share their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors.
Example:
If you love a certain band, you might assume most of your friends also love them, even if they don't, due to the false consensus effect.
Foot-in-the-door technique
A persuasion strategy where a small initial request is made, followed by a larger, related request, increasing the likelihood of compliance with the second request.
Example:
First asking a friend to borrow a pen, and then later asking to borrow their entire notebook, is an application of the foot-in-the-door technique.
Gradual escalation (obedience)
A factor influencing obedience, where compliance increases when commands are given in small, incremental steps, making it easier to continue obeying.
Example:
A person might agree to a small favor, then a slightly larger one, and so on, until they are performing a significant task, due to gradual escalation of requests.
Group polarization
The tendency for a group's prevailing attitudes to become more extreme after discussion among like-minded members.
Example:
After a discussion, a group of environmental activists might become even more strongly convinced of the urgency of climate action, illustrating group polarization.
Group size (conformity)
A factor influencing conformity, where larger groups tend to exert more pressure on individuals to conform to their norms.
Example:
In a classroom, a student is more likely to agree with the wrong answer if five other students have already given it, compared to just one, due to group size.
Groupthink
A phenomenon where the desire for harmony or conformity within a group leads to irrational or dysfunctional decision-making, suppressing dissenting opinions.
Example:
A company board might approve a risky project without proper scrutiny because no one wants to challenge the CEO's vision, leading to groupthink.
Halo effect
A cognitive bias where positive impressions of a person in one area influence positive impressions in other, unrelated areas.
Example:
Believing that a physically attractive person must also be intelligent and kind, even without evidence, illustrates the halo effect.
Individualistic cultures
Cultures that emphasize personal goals, independence, and self-reliance, prioritizing the needs and achievements of the individual.
Example:
In the United States, the emphasis on personal achievement and standing out from the crowd reflects the values of individualistic cultures.
Informational influence
Conformity that occurs when individuals look to others for guidance in ambiguous or confusing situations, assuming others have more accurate information.
Example:
If you're in a new city and unsure which way to go, you might follow a group of people who seem to know where they're going, demonstrating informational influence.
Job satisfaction
The degree to which an employee is content with their work, encompassing factors like pay, work-life balance, and relationships with colleagues.
Example:
An employee who feels valued, has good benefits, and enjoys their daily tasks likely has high job satisfaction.
Multiculturalism
The practice of recognizing, valuing, and promoting the diversity of cultures within a society, fostering tolerance and adaptability.
Example:
A city with diverse neighborhoods, celebrating various cultural festivals and traditions, demonstrates a commitment to multiculturalism.
Normative influence
Conformity that occurs when individuals adjust their behavior to align with group norms to gain acceptance or avoid rejection.
Example:
A teenager might start listening to a new music genre that their friends enjoy, even if they don't initially like it, due to normative influence.
Organizational culture
The shared values, beliefs, practices, and norms that characterize a company or organization, influencing employee behavior and communication.
Example:
A company known for its open communication, collaborative teamwork, and casual dress code has a distinct organizational culture.
Peripheral route to persuasion
A persuasion method that relies on superficial cues, emotional appeals, or attractiveness of the source rather than logical arguments, often leading to temporary attitude changes.
Example:
Choosing a brand of sneakers because a famous athlete endorses them, without considering their actual quality, is an example of the peripheral route to persuasion.
Personal importance (conformity)
A factor influencing conformity, where individuals are less likely to conform when an issue is highly important to them, as they prioritize their own beliefs.
Example:
Someone deeply committed to environmental causes is less likely to conform to a group that dismisses climate change, due to the personal importance of the issue.
Pluralistic ignorance
A phenomenon where individuals mistakenly believe that their own thoughts and feelings are different from those of others, even when everyone is thinking similarly.
Example:
In a classroom, if no one asks a question because each student privately thinks they are the only one confused, it's an example of pluralistic ignorance.
Proximity of authority (obedience)
A factor influencing obedience, where individuals are more likely to obey commands when the authority figure is physically close to them.
Example:
A student is more likely to follow a teacher's instruction when the teacher is standing right next to them, illustrating the effect of proximity of authority.
Social facilitation (complex tasks)
The tendency for the presence of others to hinder performance on complex, unfamiliar, or difficult tasks.
Example:
A student struggling to solve a difficult math problem when being watched by others, experiencing increased anxiety, illustrates social facilitation hindering a complex task.
Social facilitation (simple tasks)
The tendency for the presence of others to improve performance on simple, well-learned, or familiar tasks.
Example:
A skilled musician performing better during a concert than during practice, energized by the audience, is an example of social facilitation on a simple task.
Social loafing
The tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group compared to working alone, assuming their individual contributions are not critical.
Example:
In a group project, one student might do less work than if they were working alone, expecting others to pick up the slack, demonstrating social loafing.
Social norms
Unwritten rules that guide behavior in specific social situations, dictating what is considered appropriate or expected.
Example:
When you enter a library, the expectation to speak quietly and not disrupt others is an example of a social norm.
Social reciprocity norm
A social expectation that people will help those who have helped them, or that helping others will lead to future help in return.
Example:
If a classmate helps you study for an exam, you might feel obligated to help them with their homework later, adhering to the social reciprocity norm.
Social responsibility norm
A societal expectation that people should help those in need, especially those who are dependent or unable to help themselves, without expecting anything in return.
Example:
Donating blood or volunteering at a homeless shelter, simply because it's the right thing to do, aligns with the social responsibility norm.
Social roles
The parts individuals play in society, defined by expectations associated with their age, gender, status, or position.
Example:
A student's social role involves attending classes, completing assignments, and participating in academic discussions.
Social traps
Situations in which conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.
Example:
Overfishing a shared resource, where each fisherman acts in their own short-term interest but ultimately depletes the fish stock for everyone, is a social trap.
Superordinate goals
Shared objectives that require cooperation between conflicting groups, leading to a reduction in intergroup conflict and increased harmony.
Example:
Rival sports teams working together to raise money for a community charity is an example of achieving superordinate goals.
Task difficulty (conformity)
A factor influencing conformity, where individuals are more likely to conform when a task is ambiguous or difficult, as they seek guidance from others.
Example:
When asked to solve a complex puzzle with no clear solution, a person is more likely to follow the lead of others, demonstrating the impact of task difficulty on conformity.
Unanimity (conformity)
A factor influencing conformity, where complete agreement among group members makes it harder for an individual to dissent, increasing conformity.
Example:
If every single person in a meeting agrees on a flawed plan, it becomes incredibly difficult for one person to voice a differing opinion, illustrating the power of unanimity.