Glossary
ADHD
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder is a neurodevelopmental disorder marked by a persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with functioning or development.
Example:
A student who frequently fidgets, struggles to stay seated, and often loses focus during lectures might be exhibiting symptoms of ADHD.
Agoraphobia
An anxiety disorder characterized by intense fear or anxiety about being in situations or places from which escape might be difficult or embarrassing, or where help might not be available.
Example:
A person who avoids crowded public spaces, public transportation, and even leaving their home due to fear of panic attacks might be experiencing agoraphobia.
Amygdala
A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.
Example:
When you encounter a sudden threat, your amygdala quickly processes the danger and triggers your fight-or-flight response.
Anorexia nervosa
An eating disorder characterized by an intense fear of gaining weight, a distorted body image, and severe restriction of food intake, leading to significantly low body weight.
Example:
Despite being severely underweight, a ballet dancer continues to diet rigorously and sees herself as overweight, which are classic signs of anorexia nervosa.
Anxiety Disorders
A category of mental disorders characterized by excessive and persistent fear and anxiety, and related behavioral disturbances.
Example:
Feeling constantly on edge, worrying excessively about everyday events, and avoiding social gatherings could be signs of an Anxiety Disorder.
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction, and restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities.
Example:
A child who avoids eye contact, has difficulty understanding social cues, and is intensely focused on specific routines may be on the Autism Spectrum Disorder.
Basal ganglia
A group of subcortical nuclei in the brain involved in motor control, procedural learning, habit formation, and emotion.
Example:
The repetitive behaviors seen in OCD are thought to involve dysfunction in the basal ganglia, which plays a role in habit loops.
Biopsychosocial model
An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis to understand health and illness.
Example:
Understanding why someone develops an eating disorder requires considering their genetics (biological), self-esteem issues (psychological), and societal beauty standards (social-cultural), illustrating the biopsychosocial model.
Bipolar Disorders
Mood disorders characterized by significant mood swings, including episodes of both mania (or hypomania) and depression.
Example:
A person who experiences periods of intense euphoria and boundless energy followed by deep despair and lethargy is likely suffering from a Bipolar Disorder.
Bipolar I
A type of bipolar disorder characterized by the occurrence of at least one full manic episode, which may be preceded or followed by hypomanic or major depressive episodes.
Example:
If someone experiences a severe manic episode that leads to hospitalization, they would likely be diagnosed with Bipolar I disorder.
Bipolar II
A type of bipolar disorder characterized by at least one hypomanic episode and at least one major depressive episode, but no full manic episodes.
Example:
A person who cycles between periods of mild euphoria and severe depression, but never experiences full-blown mania, would be diagnosed with Bipolar II disorder.
Bulimia nervosa
An eating disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors such as self-induced vomiting, excessive exercise, or laxative misuse.
Example:
After consuming a large amount of food in a short period, a person might feel immense guilt and then force themselves to vomit, indicating bulimia nervosa.
Classical conditioning
A type of learning in which an organism learns to associate two stimuli, such that a previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response originally elicited by another stimulus.
Example:
If a child develops a fear of dogs after being bitten by one, the dog (neutral stimulus) became associated with pain (unconditioned stimulus) through classical conditioning.
Compulsions
Repetitive behaviors or mental acts that an individual feels driven to perform in response to an obsession or according to rules that must be applied rigidly.
Example:
Repeatedly checking if the door is locked exactly five times before leaving the house, to reduce anxiety about safety, is a compulsion.
Delusions
False beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders.
Example:
A person who firmly believes that the government is spying on them through their television, despite evidence to the contrary, is experiencing a delusion.
Depressive Disorders
A category of mood disorders characterized by persistent sadness, loss of interest or pleasure, and other symptoms that significantly impair daily functioning.
Example:
Someone experiencing prolonged feelings of hopelessness, fatigue, and difficulty concentrating might be diagnosed with a Depressive Disorder.
Disorganized thinking/speech
A symptom of psychotic disorders characterized by incoherent speech, shifting topics erratically, or 'word salad,' making communication difficult.
Example:
When a person's sentences are jumbled, nonsensical, and jump from one unrelated idea to another, they are exhibiting disorganized thinking/speech.
Dissociative Disorders
Disorders characterized by a disruption of and/or discontinuity in the normal integration of consciousness, memory, identity, emotion, perception, body representation, motor control, and behavior.
Example:
When a person experiences a profound sense of detachment from their own body or memories, they might be experiencing a Dissociative Disorder.
Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)
A dissociative disorder characterized by the presence of two or more distinct personality states or an experience of possession, accompanied by recurrent gaps in the recall of everyday events.
Example:
A patient who exhibits distinct shifts in personality, voice, and memories, sometimes referring to themselves by different names, may be diagnosed with Dissociative Identity Disorder.
Dissociative amnesia
A dissociative disorder characterized by an inability to recall important personal information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature, that is too extensive to be explained by ordinary forgetfulness.
Example:
After witnessing a horrific accident, a survivor might be unable to remember any details of the event, a symptom of dissociative amnesia.
Dissociative fugue
A rare dissociative disorder characterized by sudden, unexpected travel away from home or one's customary place of work, with an inability to recall one's past and confusion about personal identity.
Example:
A person found wandering in a different city with no memory of who they are or how they got there might be experiencing a dissociative fugue.
Dopamine hypothesis
A theory suggesting that schizophrenia is caused by an excess of dopamine activity in the brain, or by oversensitivity to dopamine.
Example:
Researchers investigating new treatments for schizophrenia often target dopamine receptors, based on the dopamine hypothesis.
Eating Disorders
Serious conditions characterized by persistent disturbances in eating behaviors and associated thoughts and emotions, leading to significant physical and psychological harm.
Example:
An individual who severely restricts their food intake or engages in binge-purge cycles might be suffering from one of the Eating Disorders.
Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
An anxiety disorder characterized by excessive, uncontrollable, and often irrational worry about everyday events or activities for at least six months.
Example:
Constantly worrying about finances, health, family, and work, even when things are going well, without a specific trigger, is a hallmark of Generalized Anxiety Disorder.
Hallucinations
False sensory experiences, such as seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, or feeling things that are not there.
Example:
Hearing voices that no one else can hear, even when alone, is a common type of hallucination.
Hippocampus
A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.
Example:
Damage to the hippocampus can impair a person's ability to form new memories, which is sometimes observed in individuals with severe trauma.
Hoarding disorder
A disorder characterized by persistent difficulty discarding or parting with possessions, regardless of their actual value, due to a perceived need to save them and distress associated with discarding them.
Example:
A person whose home is filled with stacks of old newspapers, broken appliances, and countless items they cannot bring themselves to throw away, even if it creates unsafe living conditions, may have hoarding disorder.
Hypomania
A milder form of mania, characterized by elevated mood, increased energy, and activity, but without the significant impairment or psychotic features seen in full manic episodes.
Example:
Unlike full mania, during hypomania, Mark feels unusually productive and cheerful, but his functioning isn't severely disrupted, and he doesn't lose touch with reality.
Learned helplessness
The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.
Example:
A student who repeatedly fails tests despite studying hard might eventually give up trying, demonstrating learned helplessness.
Major Depressive Disorder
A mood disorder characterized by at least two weeks of depressed mood or loss of interest or pleasure, along with several other symptoms like changes in sleep, appetite, or energy.
Example:
After losing her job, Maria felt profound sadness, couldn't sleep, and lost all interest in her hobbies for over a month, indicating Major Depressive Disorder.
Mania
A state of abnormally elevated, expansive, or irritable mood, increased activity or energy, and other symptoms like decreased need for sleep or racing thoughts, characteristic of bipolar disorder.
Example:
During a period of mania, Sarah might stay up for days, impulsively spend large sums of money, and believe she can accomplish anything.
Negative reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as an aversive stimulus. This is not punishment.
Example:
Taking an aspirin to relieve a headache is an example of negative reinforcement because the behavior (taking aspirin) is strengthened by the removal of an unpleasant stimulus (headache).
Negative symptoms
Symptoms of schizophrenia that involve the absence of appropriate behaviors, such as flat affect (lack of emotional expression) or avolition (lack of motivation).
Example:
A person with schizophrenia who shows no emotional reaction to exciting news and struggles to initiate any activities might be experiencing negative symptoms.
Neurodevelopmental Disorders
A group of conditions that begin early in development and are characterized by developmental deficits that produce impairments of personal, social, academic, or occupational functioning.
Example:
A child struggling with social interactions and repetitive behaviors might be diagnosed with a neurodevelopmental disorder like Autism Spectrum Disorder.
OCD
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder is characterized by the presence of obsessions, compulsions, or both, which are time-consuming or cause clinically significant distress or impairment.
Example:
Someone who is plagued by intrusive thoughts of harm and performs elaborate rituals to neutralize them is likely suffering from OCD.
Obsessions
Recurrent and persistent thoughts, urges, or images that are experienced as intrusive and unwanted, and that typically cause marked anxiety or distress.
Example:
Having constant, intrusive thoughts about germs and contamination, even after washing hands, is an example of an obsession.
Panic disorder
An anxiety disorder characterized by recurrent, unexpected panic attacks, which are sudden episodes of intense fear accompanied by physical symptoms like heart palpitations, shortness of breath, or dizziness.
Example:
Suddenly feeling an overwhelming sense of dread, a racing heart, and difficulty breathing out of the blue, even when calm, is indicative of a panic disorder.
Persistent Depressive Disorder
A chronic form of depression, characterized by a depressed mood that lasts for at least two years, along with at least two other depressive symptoms.
Example:
John has felt mildly sad and unmotivated for as long as he can remember, consistently for the past three years, which aligns with Persistent Depressive Disorder.
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
A trauma- and stressor-related disorder characterized by intrusive memories, avoidance of reminders, negative changes in thoughts and mood, and hyperarousal following exposure to a traumatic event.
Example:
A veteran who experiences flashbacks, nightmares, and extreme vigilance after combat may be diagnosed with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder.
Schizophrenic Spectrum Disorders
A group of psychotic disorders characterized by major disturbances in thought, emotion, and behavior, including delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and negative symptoms.
Example:
Someone experiencing a profound break from reality, believing they are a secret agent and hearing voices, might be diagnosed with a Schizophrenic Spectrum Disorder.
Social anxiety disorder
An anxiety disorder characterized by intense fear or anxiety of social situations where one might be scrutinized, judged, or embarrassed.
Example:
Someone who dreads public speaking, avoids parties, and fears eating in front of others due to intense worry about negative evaluation likely has social anxiety disorder.
Specific phobias
An anxiety disorder characterized by an intense, irrational fear of a specific object or situation that is out of proportion to the actual danger.
Example:
Someone who experiences extreme panic and goes to great lengths to avoid spiders, even pictures of them, has a specific phobia of arachnids.
Trauma Disorders
A category of disorders that develop in response to exposure to a traumatic or stressful event, characterized by symptoms such as intrusive memories, avoidance, and hyperarousal.
Example:
After experiencing a natural disaster, individuals may develop Trauma Disorders like PTSD due to the overwhelming stress.